List of Acronyms xv

Introduction xxxiii
Thierry PHULPIN

Part 1 Meteorology 1

Introduction to Part 1 3
Hervé ROQUET

Chapter 1 Operational Sounding of Thermodynamic Variables in the Atmosphere 9
Thomas AUGUST

1.1 Introduction 9

1.2 Operational use of TIR and MW sounders 11

1.2.1 Satisfying ever-more demanding users 11

1.2.2 Clouds: an obstacle to sounding and a very useful geophysical product 17

1.2.3 Demonstrating and maintaining product quality 19

1.2.4 Different operational algorithmic strategies 22

1.2.5 Application perspectives 25

1.3 Acknowledgments 26

1.4 References 27

Chapter 2 Wind Observations 31
Régis BORDE and Jean PAILLEUX

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 AMVs 34

2.2.1 Extraction of AMVs 34

2.2.2 Current production and outlook 35

2.3 3D winds derived from hyperspectral sounders 37

2.4 Measuring wind from space using Doppler lidar 39

2.4.1 Introduction 39

2.4.2 Measurements from ALADIN lidar onboard Aeolus 40

2.4.3 Culmination of a long process 41

2.4.4 Situation in 2022 and outlook 42

2.5 References 43

Chapter 3 Surface Variables 47
Jean-François MAHFOUF

3.1 Observation of the Earth’s surface from space 47

3.2 Energy balances at the surface and at the top of the atmosphere 49

3.3 Ocean surfaces 50

3.3.1 Surface temperature 50

3.3.2 Surface wind 52

3.3.3 Sea ice 54

3.4 Continental surfaces 56

3.4.1 Surface temperature 56

3.4.2 Water content of soil 57

3.4.3 Surface albedo 61

3.4.4 Vegetation properties 62

3.5 Snow-covered surfaces 64

3.5.1 Spatial coverage and albedo 64

3.5.2 Equivalent water content 65

3.6 Expected changes 65

3.7 References 66

Chapter 4 The Assimilation of Satellite Data in Numerical Weather Prediction Systems 69
Bill BELL, Jean-Noël THÉPAUT and John EYRE

4.1 Introduction 69

4.2 Early meteorological satellites 71

4.3 Assimilation of satellite soundings 1970–2000 71

4.3.1 Early sounding instruments 71

4.3.2 Assimilation experience: 1970s 73

4.3.3 Assimilation experience: early 1980s 73

4.3.4 Problems arising in the late 1980s 74

4.4 Relevant aspects of data assimilation theory 75

4.5 The modern era (2000 to present) 77

4.5.1 Assimilation strategies 77

4.5.2 Advanced infrared sounders 79

4.5.3 Microwave sounders and imagers 81

4.5.4 Radiative transfer modeling 83

4.5.5 Observation uncertainties 83

4.5.6 Atmospheric motion vectors (AMVs) 84

4.5.7 Scatterometers 86

4.5.8 Radio occultation observations 87

4.5.9 Impacts 89

4.5.10 Reanalyses 91

4.6 Summary and conclusion 91

4.7 References 92

Chapter 5 Nowcasting 97
Thibaut MONTMERLE

5.1 Introduction 97

5.2 Satellite data for nowcasting 99

5.2.1 Polar-orbiting satellites 99

5.2.2 Geostationary satellites 100

5.3 Observed phenomena 104

5.3.1 Air mass instability 104

5.3.2 Convective systems 104

5.3.3 Characteristics of clouds 108

5.3.4 Hydrometeors 109

5.3.5 Wind 110

5.4 Nowcasting of detected phenomena 111

5.4.1 Method based on the tracking of structures 111

5.4.2 Method based on image extrapolation 112

5.4.3 Method based on artificial intelligence 112

5.4.4 Use of numerical forecasting 114

5.4.5 OBS-NWP fusion 115

5.4.6 Probabilistic forecast 115

5.5 Perspectives 116

5.6 References 116

Chapter 6 Observation and Monitoring of Tropical Cyclones from Space 119
Frank ROUX

6.1 Introduction 119

6.2 Visible and infrared imagery 120

6.3 Microwave imaging 122

6.4 Microwave sounding 125

6.5 Surface wind measurements 126

viii Satellites for Atmospheric Sciences 2

6.6 Ocean parameters 130

6.7 Climatology of cyclones 131

6.8 Conclusion 132

6.9 References 133

Part 2 Atmospheric Composition 137

Introduction to Part 2 Air Composition and the Contribution from Satellite Observations 139
Thierry PHULPIN and Claude CAMY-PEYRET

Chapter 7 Reactive Tropospheric Chemistry 143
Sarah SAFIEDDINE and Camille VIATTE

7.1 Introduction 143

7.2 Methane 144

7.3 Reactive organic species 144

7.3.1 Isoprene 146

7.3.2 Other non-methane volatile organic compounds 146

7.4 Reactive inorganic species 148

7.5 Conclusion 150

7.6 Acknowledgment 150

7.7 References 150

Chapter 8 Major Pollutants: Ozone and Fine Particulate Matter 153
Juan CUESTA and Gaëlle DUFOUR

8.1 Introduction 153

8.2 Tropospheric ozone 154

8.2.1 Beginnings of satellite-based tropospheric ozone observations 154

8.2.2 Current capabilities for tropospheric ozone monitoring 155

8.2.3 Multi-wavelength synergy for ozone pollution monitoring 157

8.3 Pollution aerosols 158

8.3.1 Optical thickness of pollution aerosols 159

8.3.2 Altitude of pollution aerosols 161

8.4 References 163

Chapter 9 Desert Dust 167
Juan CUESTA

9.1 Introduction 167

9.2 Qualitative satellite detection of desert dust 168

9.3 Satellite observation of the optical depth of desert dust 170

9.4 Vertical profiles of desert dust by spaceborne lidar 171

9.5 3D distribution of desert dust by infrared spectrometer 173

9.6 Conclusion 175

9.7 References 176

Chapter 10 Species Emitted by Fires 179
Camille VIATTE and Pasquale SELLITTO

10.1 Introduction 179

10.2 Biomass burning gases 181

10.2.1 Greenhouses gases 181

10.2.2 Carbon monoxide (CO) 181

10.2.3 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 182

10.2.4 Ammonia (NH3) 183

10.2.5 Nitrous acid (HONO) 183

10.3 Biomass burning aerosols 183

10.3.1 AOD observations with nadir-viewing instruments 183

10.3.2 Extinction observations with limb-viewing instruments 184

10.3.3 Lidar profiles observations 184

10.4 Fire detection systems from space 184

10.5 Conclusion 185

10.6 Acknowledgments 185

10.7 References 185

Chapter 11 Stratospheric Chemistry 189
Claude CAMY-PEYRET and Sarah SAFIEDDINE

11.1 Introduction 189

11.2 Stratospheric ozone chemistry 189

11.2.1 Polar ozone depletion 190

11.2.2 Antarctic ozone distribution 192

11.2.3 Arctic ozone distribution 193

11.3 Stratospheric chemistry of other species 193

11.3.1 Chemistry of the stratosphere and models 194

11.3.2 Radical processes and cycles for the major families 196

11.3.3 The example of methane in the stratosphere 197

11.4 Satellite measurements of trace species in the stratosphere 198

11.5 Conclusion 200

11.6 Acknowledgments 200

11.7 References 200

Part 3 Atmosphere and climate 203

Introduction to Part 3 Atmosphere and Climate and the Contribution of Space 205
Paul POLI

Chapter 12 Climate Monitoring 209
Paul POLI and Jörg SCHULZ

12.1 General concepts about the climate 209

12.1.1 What is climate? 209

12.1.2 Is climate limited to atmospheric phenomena? 211

12.1.3 A question for Nobel Prize laureates: is the climate stable? 213

12.2 From space-based measurements to climate products 215

12.2.1 Sensing the environment 215

12.2.2 The role of space-based observations 217

12.2.3 The concept of essential climate variables 218

12.2.4 Observation-based products 220

12.2.5 Model-assisted climate products 221

12.3 Climate data records and uncertainty estimates 223

12.3.1 Why reprocessing? 223

12.3.2 Calibration 224

12.3.3 Uncertainty 226

12.4 The usage of climate data records in science and services 228

12.5 Looking ahead 230

12.6 References 231

12.7 References of the data sources cited in Figure 12.1 232

Chapter 13 Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases: CO2 and CH4 235
Cyril CREVOISIER

13.1 Monitoring anthropogenic greenhouse gases 236

13.1.1 Biogeochemical cycles 236

13.1.2 Determination of gas sources and sinks 236

13.1.3 The global observation network 237

13.2 Contribution of spatial observation of greenhouse gases 238

13.2.1 Specificities of greenhouse gas observation 238

13.2.2 Particularly rich spatial programming 241

13.3 Measurement techniques 242

13.3.1 Passive observations in the infrared range 243

13.3.2 Passive observations by solar reflection 245

13.3.3 Passive observations by solar occultation 247

13.3.4 Active observations using lidar 247

13.4 From radiation measurement to gas flux at the surface 248

13.4.1 From radiation measurement to gas concentrations 248

13.4.2 From concentration to fluxes 250

13.4.3 Main limitations 251

13.5 Challenges for the future 252

13.5.1 Towards the observation of anthropogenic emissions by spatial imagery 253

13.5.2 Reducing spatio-temporal sampling biases 253

13.5.3 Towards an operational greenhouse gas monitoring service 254

13.6 References 255

Chapter 14 Clouds and Water Vapor 259
Hélène BROGNIEZ, Laurence PICON and Dominique BOUNIOL

14.1 Atmospheric water cycle and climate 259

14.2 Observations of water vapor 260

14.2.1 Passive sensors 263

14.2.2 Active sensors 265

14.2.3 Homogenization and intercomparison 266

14.3 Observation of cloud properties 267

14.3.1 Observations using passive instruments 270

14.3.2 Observations using active instruments 273

14.3.3 Multi-instrument synergy for the establishment of cloud climatologies 277

14.4 References 282

Chapter 15 Precipitation 287
Vincenzo LEVIZZANI and Christopher KIDD

15.1 Need for global precipitation measurements 287

15.2 Satellite observation of rainfall 289

15.2.1 Visible/Infrared 290

15.2.2 Passive microwave 291

15.2.3 Radar 294

15.2.4 Merged products 295

15.3 Observation of solid precipitation 298

15.4 Precipitation and the Earth water cycle 300

15.5 References 303

Appendices 307

Appendix 1 309
Claude CAMY-PEYRET

Appendix 2 317
Claude CAMY-PEYRET

Appendix 3 327

Appendix 4 341

Glossary 347

List of Authors 361

Index 365

Summary of Volume 1 369