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Protection of Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Smart grid, Microgrid, AI, and Cyber Security
Tariq Masood (Author), Jamil Abdo (Author), Atif Iqbal (Author)
9781394327645, Wiley
Hardback, published 5 December 2025
416 pages
28 x 19 x 2.4 cm, 0.737 kg
Comprehensive reference on safeguarding electrical power systems from faults and failures, exploring emerging technologies such as AI and ML Supported by case studies of real-world power system faults, Protection of Electrical Power Distribution Systems offers an in-depth examination of the methods and technologies used to safeguard electrical grids from faults and failures. The book begins with a comprehensive introduction to power system fundamentals, emphasizing the critical role of protection mechanisms in maintaining system stability and ensuring operational safety. It thoroughly explores various types of faults, including short circuits, ground faults, and overloads, detailing their potential impacts on system performance, reliability, and safety. The book introduces foundational concepts such as protection overlay, unit protection, and non-unit protection, before diving into the core principles of power system protection. These include the key attributes of selectivity, sensitivity, speed, and reliability, essential for designing effective protection systems. A detailed discussion follows on the wide range of protective devices used in modern power systems, such as fuses, circuit breakers, and relays, along with strategies for their coordination to ensure optimal performance. To enhance reader engagement and understanding, the book includes practical exercises and self-assessment questions that focus on protection system design and implementation. These tools encourage deeper learning and provide valuable insights into the real-world application of power system protection technologies. Protection of Electrical Power Distribution Systems includes information on: Protection of Electrical Power Distribution Systems serves as an essential reference for engineers, researchers, and students, offering a deep understanding of power system protection principles and practices to enhance the reliability and safety of electrical power systems.
Author Biographies xix Foreword xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxix Definition/Abbreviations xxxix Web Catalog xli Exercises Discussed in this Book xliii Figures Discussed in this Book xlix Equations Discussed in this Book lv Tables Discussed in this Book lvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Objectives 1 1.2 Introduction 1 2 The Protection Overlay 5 2.1 Objectives 5 2.2 Introduction 5 2.3 Nonunit Protection and Unit Protection 6 2.3.1 Nonunit or Nonrestricted Protection 7 2.3.1.1 Nonunit Protection Using Time for Discrimination 7 2.3.1.2 Nonunit Protection Not Using Time for Discrimination 8 2.3.2 Unit or Restricted Protection 8 2.4 Nonunit Protection and Unit Protection 10 2.5 Backup Protection 14 2.5.1 Primary and Secondary Protection Schemes 15 2.5.2 Dual Main Protection Schemes 16 2.6 Self-Assessments Questions 17 Bibliography 17 3 Nonunit Protection of Distribution Feeders 23 3.1 Objectives 23 3.2 Introduction 23 3.3 Fuses 24 3.3.1 Fuse Operating Characteristics 26 3.3.2 Protecting Radial Feeder Circuits with Fuses 28 3.3.3 Expulsion Fuse for Protecting Radial Feeder Circuits 31 3.3.4 Circuit Breaker-Assisted Fuse Protection Schemes 32 3.4 Overcurrent Relays 34 3.5 IDMT Overcurrent Relays 35 3.5.1 Operating Characteristics 35 3.5.2 Relay Types 37 3.5.2.1 Electromechanical Relays 37 3.5.2.2 Static (Analog) Relays 39 3.5.2.3 Digital Relays 40 3.5.3 Overcurrent Relay Setting 41 3.5.3.1 Protecting Feeder Circuits with IDMT Overcurrent Relays 42 3.5.3.2 The Relay Current Settings 43 3.5.3.3 Relay Time Settings 48 3.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays 50 3.7 Conclusion 51 3.8 Self-Assessment Questions 52 3.8.1 Protecting Feeder Circuits Using IDMT Overcurrent Relays with Instantaneous Elements 53 3.8.2 Protecting Feeder Circuits Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 54 3.8.3 Phase Fault Protection Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 56 3.8.4 Phase Fault Protection of Parallel Feeders 56 3.8.5 Phase Fault Protection of Ring Main Circuits 57 3.8.6 Earth Fault Protection Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 59 3.8.7 Computer-Based Overcurrent Relay Grading 61 Bibliography 61 4 Protection Transducers 67 4.1 Objectives 67 4.2 Introduction 67 4.3 Current Transformer (CT) 68 4.4 Voltage Transformer (VT) 71 4.5 Self-Assessment Questions 73 Bibliography 73 5 Unit Protection of Distribution Feeders 79 5.1 Objectives 79 5.2 Introduction 79 5.3 Conventional Differential Protection 80 5.4 Digital Differential Protection 83 5.5 Directional Earth Fault Protection 85 5.6 Rough Balance Protection 86 5.7 Self-Assessment Questions 89 Bibliography 90 6 Transformer Protection 95 6.1 Objectives 95 6.2 Introduction 95 6.2.1 Earth Fault 96 6.2.2 Phase Fault 96 6.2.3 Interturn Fault 98 6.2.4 Core Fault 98 6.3 Protection Overview 98 6.4 Differential Protection 99 6.4.1 Factors Affecting Differential Protection 99 6.4.2 Transformation Ratio 99 6.4.3 Phase Shifts in Delta/Star Windings 100 6.4.4 Tap Changing 102 6.4.5 Magnetic Inrush 103 6.5 Fuse Protection 107 6.6 Overcurrent Protection 108 6.7 Restricted Earth Fault Protection 108 6.8 Buchholz Protection 109 6.9 Winding Temperature Protection 110 6.10 Summary 110 6.11 Self-Assessment Questions 112 Bibliography 112 7 Busbar Protection 117 7.1 Objectives 117 7.2 Introduction 117 7.3 Busbar Fault Clearing Using Backup Protection 118 7.4 Frame-Earth Protection 118 7.4.1 Basic System 118 7.4.2 Frame-Earth with Check Relay 120 7.4.3 Frame-Earth Protection for Sectioned Busbar 120 7.4.4 Frame Earth Protection for Double Busbar Switchboard 122 7.5 Differential Protection 122 7.5.1 Basic Application 122 7.5.2 Differential Protection for Sectioned Substation 124 7.5.3 Differential Protection for Double Busbar Substation 125 7.5.4 High Impedance Relays for Differential Busbar Schemes 127 7.5.5 Stabilizing Resistance 127 7.5.6 Relay Setting Calculation 129 7.6 Self-Assessment Questions 131 Bibliography 131 8 Motor Protection 137 8.1 Objectives 137 8.2 Introduction 137 8.3 Motor Characteristics Involved in Protection 138 8.4 Stator Winding Protection 139 8.5 Overload Protection 140 8.6 Phase Unbalance Protection 141 8.7 Self-Assessment Questions 143 Bibliography 143 9 Embedded Generation Protection Systems 147 9.1 Objectives 147 9.2 Introduction 147 9.2.1 Embedded Generation 147 9.2.2 Types of Generation 148 9.3 Problem Introduced by Connecting Embedded Generating 150 9.3.1 Safety 150 9.3.2 Quality of Supply 151 9.3.3 Short-Circuit and Damage Prevention Protection 152 9.3.4 Protection Guidelines 153 9.4 Utility Protection Requirements for an Embedded Generator 154 9.4.1 Short-Circuit Protection for External Faults 154 9.4.2 Short-Circuit Protection for Internal Faults 154 9.4.3 Neutral Displacement Protection 155 9.4.4 Phase Unbalance Protection 156 9.4.5 Field Failure and Pole-Slipping Protection 156 9.4.6 Reverse Power Protection 158 9.4.7 Synchronization Control of the Connection Circuit Braker 159 9.4.8 Under-/Overvoltage and Under-/Over-frequency Protection 159 9.4.9 Loss of Grid Protection 159 9.4.10 Protection Supervision 164 9.5 Self-Assessment Questions 165 Bibliography 165 10 Autoreclose Relaying 169 10.1 Objectives 169 10.2 Introduction 169 10.2.1 The Main Cause of Faults on Overhead Distribution Lines 170 10.2.2 Transient, Semipermanent, and Permanent Faults 170 10.2.3 Fault Clearance 171 10.2.4 Circuit Breaker Operation 171 10.3 Autoreclosing Relays 172 10.3.1 The Single-Shot Autoreclosing Relay Sequence 172 10.3.2 Choice of Dead Time 174 10.3.3 Multiple-Shot Autoreclose Schemes 175 10.3.4 Check Synchronism Relays 178 10.4 Self-Assessment Questions 180 Bibliography 180 11 Coordinated Protection and Control 185 11.1 Objectives 185 11.2 Conventional Protection and Control Systems 185 11.3 Coordinated Protection and Control 188 11.4 Digital Technology 189 11.4.1 Digital Communications 189 11.4.2 Computer Networking 191 11.4.3 Communication Media for Data Communications 194 11.4.4 Digital Relays 194 11.5 Typical Structure of a Modern Coordinated Substation 195 11.6 Self-Assessment Questions 198 Bibliography 198 12 Smart Grid Operation & Control 203 12.1 Objectives 203 12.2 Introduction 203 12.2.1 Distributed Intelligence 204 12.2.2 Broadband Communication 204 12.3 Distribution System 205 12.4 The Smart Grid Ultimate Goal 206 12.5 Smart Grid Decentralized Versus Centralized Control 207 12.6 Distribution Automation (DA) 208 12.6.1 Communication Networks 209 12.6.2 Distribution Automation (DA) – FDIR 209 12.6.2.1 Fault Detection, Isolation, and Restoration (FDIR) 209 12.6.2.2 Radial Low-Voltage Networks 210 12.6.2.3 Voltage Measurement Schematic 211 12.6.3 Fault Detection, Isolation, and Restoration (FDIR) and FLISR 212 12.7 Volt-Var Optimization (VVO) 213 12.8 SCADA System 214 12.8.1 SCADA System Functions 216 12.8.2 SCADA System Outage Monitoring 216 12.9 Case Studies 217 12.9.1 Northern Virginia Electric Cooperative (NOVEC) 217 12.9.2 Electric Power Board of Chattanooga 218 12.9.3 Duke Energy 218 12.9.4 Consolidated Edison (Con Edison) 219 12.9.5 Centerpoint Energy 219 12.9.6 PPL Electric Utilities Corporation 220 12.9.7 Pepco – Dc 220 12.9.8 Southern Company 221 12.9.9 Wisconsin Power and Light Company (WPL) 221 12.9.10 Central Lincoln People’s Utility District 222 12.9.11 Florida Power & LIG, HT Company (FPL) 222 12.10 Smart Grid System for PV and Wind 223 12.11 R&D Challenges 223 12.12 Standardization Efforts in Smart Grid Technologies 223 12.12.1 Key Organizations Involved in Standardization 224 12.12.2 Impact of Policies on Smart and Microgrid Operations 225 12.12.2.1 Renewable Energy Policies 225 12.12.2.2 Energy Efficiency and Demand Response 225 12.12.2.3 Cybersecurity and Privacy Regulations 225 12.13 Challenges in Regulatory and Standardization Implementation 226 12.13.1 Harmonization Across Regions 226 12.13.2 Regulatory Uncertainty 226 12.13.3 Balancing Innovation and Regulation 226 12.14 Future Directions in Regulatory and Standardization Efforts 227 12.15 Self-Assessment Questions 228 Bibliography 228 13 Microgrid Operation and Control 231 13.1 Objectives 231 13.2 Introduction 231 13.3 Classification of Microgrids 231 13.3.1 AC Microgrid Operations and Control 234 13.3.2 dc Microgrid Operations and Control 235 13.3.3 Hybrid Microgrid Operations and Control 236 13.4 Microgrid Control 238 13.5 Droop Control – Parallel Inverter in UPS System 241 13.5.1 Bidirectional DC/DC Converters 242 13.5.2 Droop Control – Parallel Inverter in UPS System 243 13.5.3 Droop Control – Battery Charging and Discharging Systems 243 13.5.4 Off-Grid and Island Microgrid 245 13.5.5 Different Types of Islanding 246 13.5.6 Grid Following Inverters 246 13.5.7 Grid-Forming Inverters 248 13.6 Short-Circuit Study 249 13.6.1 Advantages of Short-Circuit Ratio Study 249 13.6.2 Traditional Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR) Method 249 13.7 Strong and Weak Microgrid 249 13.8 Types of Circuit Breakers in the AC and DC Microgrid 250 13.8.1 Time Current Curve 252 13.8.1.1 Typical Example of TCCs 253 13.8.1.2 Terminology of LSI (Long Time, Short Time, and Instantaneous) 253 13.8.1.3 Time Current Curve – TCC-Time Band 256 13.8.1.4 Terminology of MCCB and LVPCB 256 13.8.1.5 TCC for MCCBs Normally 2 Settings 257 13.8.1.6 TCC for LVPCBs. Normally 5 Settings 258 13.8.1.7 TCC for Fuse 259 13.8.1.8 TCC – Peak Let-Through for Fuses 261 13.9 Low Voltage Trip Unit 262 13.10 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical 263 13.11 CB Selectivity or Coordination for Grid Operations 264 13.12 Microgrid Adaptive and Predictive Control Techniques 268 13.12.1 Control of Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) 269 13.12.1.1 Integration of DERs 269 13.12.1.2 Inverter-Based Control 269 13.13 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in Grid Control 269 13.13.1 AI and ml 269 13.13.2 Data Analytics 269 13.14 Coordination of Multiple Control Levels 270 13.14.1 Hierarchical Control Structures 270 13.14.2 Interoperability and Standardization 270 13.15 Regulatory and Standardization Aspects 270 13.15.1 Overview of Regulatory Frameworks 270 13.15.1.1 National and Regional Regulations 270 13.15.1.2 Market Structures and Economic Regulation 271 13.16 Self-Assessment Questions 272 Bibliography 272 14 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning’s Industrial Application 275 14.1 Objectives 275 14.2 Thinking Probabilistic 275 14.3 AI Machine Power and Disruption 277 14.4 Designing Reliable Systems 279 14.5 Embracing Uncertainty 280 14.6 AI System Prediction Technology 280 14.7 AI Prediction Machine Rules 281 14.8 AI Model Architecture 281 14.9 AI Models Tutorials 282 14.9.1 AI Industrial Assessment Models 282 14.9.2 Introduction to Machine Learning in Microgrid Operations 284 14.9.3 Data Analytics in Microgrid Control 286 14.9.4 Machine Learning Applications in Microgrid Control 287 14.9.5 Case Studies and Practical Implementations 288 14.10 Challenges and Future Directions 290 14.11 Conclusion 292 14.12 Probability AI Models Configuration 294 14.13 Self-Assessments Questions 296 Bibliography 296 15 Cybersecurity and Information Program’s Power System 297 15.1 Objectives 297 15.2 Introduction 298 15.3 Cybersecurity Operations 299 15.4 Cybersecurity Impact and Solution 299 15.4.1 Validate Process Mapping 301 15.4.2 Data Collection Frame 302 15.4.3 Data Collection – Introducing System Mapping 303 15.5 How Can You Help? 303 15.6 Cybersecurity Tailored Models 307 15.6.1 Project Plan Work For (IT Penetration Testing, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment Framework) 307 15.6.1.1 Operational Summary 307 15.6.1.2 Objectives 308 15.6.1.3 Scope of Work 308 15.6.1.4 Methodology 308 15.6.1.5 Tools Used 309 15.6.1.6 Assessment and Testing Environment 309 15.6.1.7 Finding Overview 309 15.6.1.8 Security Controls and Levels 310 15.6.1.9 Training Needs 310 15.6.1.10 Deliverables 310 15.6.1.11 Time Line 310 15.6.2 Scope of Work for (OT Penetration Testing, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment Framework) 310 15.6.2.1 Operational Summary 311 15.6.2.2 Planning and Preparation 311 15.6.2.3 Assessment Phase 311 15.6.2.4 Testing Phase 312 15.6.2.5 Reporting Phase 312 15.6.2.6 Remediation and Improvement 312 15.6.2.7 Continuous Monitoring and Follow-Up 313 15.6.2.8 Scope of Assessment 313 15.6.2.9 OT Environment Equipment List 314 15.7 Self-Assessment Questions 315 Bibliography 315 Self-Assessment Question’s Answers Section-wise 317 Tutor Marked Assignments 343 About the Authors 347 Index 351
Subject Areas: Electronics & communications engineering [TJ]
