1 Examining Literacy in the Twenty-First Century 2

OPENING VIGNETTE: Discovering What Makes a Good

Reader and a Good Teacher of Readers 2

THE GAP: LITERACY PRACTICES IN SCHOOL AND OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL 4

PERSPECTIVES ON WHAT IT MEANS TO BE LITERATE 5

MODELS OF SCHOOLING THAT IMPACT LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 6

Learning Is about Skill Building: Industrial Model 6

Investigating a Question: Inquiry Model 8

Problematizing the Status Quo: Critical Model 9

SIX GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING READING AND WRITING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 11

Principle #1: Literacy Practices Are Socially and Culturally Constructed. 11

Principle #2: Literacy Practices Are Purposeful. 12

Principle #3: Literacy Practices Contain Ideologies and Values. 13

Autonomous model 13

Ideological model 14

Principle #4: Literacy Practices Are Learned through Inquiry. 14

Principle #5: Literacy Practices Invite Readers and Writers to Use Their Background Knowledge and Cultural Understandings to Make Sense of Texts. 15

Principle #6 Literacy Practices Expand to Include Everyday Texts and Multimodal Texts. 16

THE ROLE OF NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND IN LITERACY INSTRUCTION 18

Scientifically Based Reading Instruction and the National Reading Panel 19

Reading First Initiative 20

CREATING A VISION FOR EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION 21

IN CLOSING 22

2 Oral Language Learning in and Out of the Classroom 24

OPENING VIGNETTE: My Heart be Beepin’: Ms. Adams Learns From Angie 24

ORAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT FROM A SOCIOCRITICAL PERSPECTIVE 26

Language Practices Are Dialogic and Evolving 27

Language Practices Are Culturally and

Socially Situated 29

Language Practices Reflect Power and Politics 29

VARIATIONS IN ORAL LANGUAGE 30

Increase of Multiple Languages in Classroom Settings 31

Linguistic Variation within English: Is there a Standard? 34

Register 34

Dialects 35

African American Vernacular or “Ebonics” 36

Classroom approaches to issues of dialect 36

Language Variation as a Resource, Not a Deficit 37

Language Policies: Implications for Teaching Literacy 39

CONDITIONS AND MODELS FOR ORAL LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 41

Cambourne’s Model of Oral Language Development 41

Cambourne’s conditions for oral language development 42

Cambourne’s conditions for reading and writing 43

Halliday’s Model of Language Acquisition 44

Learning language 44

Learning about language 44

Learning through language 48

LANGUAGE CUEING SYSTEMS THAT SUPPORT

READING AND WRITING DEVELOPMENT 50

Graphophonemic: Sounds and Symbols 50

Phonemes and phonemic awareness 50

Phonetics and phonics 52

Semantics: The Meaning of Words 53

Syntactics: The Structure of Language 54

Pragmatics: Language in Use 55

IN CLOSING 56

3 Getting to Know Students: Developing Culturally Relevant Practices for Reading and Writing 58

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Garrity Learns from Bianca 58

EXAMINING CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN

CLASSROOM SETTINGS 61

The Divide between the Teacher’s Culture and Students’

Cultures 61

Recognizing Differences within English Language

Learners 62

Learning about Home and Community Practices 63

Funds of knowledge 64

Virtual school bags 65

TEACHING FROM A CULTURALLY RELEVANT PERSPECTIVE 66

Supporting Linguistically Diverse Learners in Reading and Writing 67

Connect students’ background knowledge and personal experiences to literacy events 68

Create opportunities for students to meaningfully and authentically apply oral language skills 69

Encourage students’ primary language and/or code switching during literacy events 70

Contextualize instruction of language through authentic literature 70

Documenting students’ home and community literacy practices 72

Establishing Culturally Relevant Interaction Patterns in Literacy Events 72

Read aloud from a teacher-centered perspective 73

Read aloud from a student-centered perspective 74

USING EARLY ASSESSMENT TO KNOW YOUR STUDENTS 76

Kidwatching 77

Attitudes and Interest in Reading and Writing 80

Attitude questionnaires and surveys 80

Interviews 81

IN CLOSING 82

4 Theories of Literacy Development 84

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms Young Herr Discovers the Role of Theory in Creating Curriculum 84

WHAT DOES THEORY HAVE TO DO WITH CURRICULUM BUILDING? 87

Uncovering your Beliefs about Teaching and Instruction 87

FOUR CLASSROOM PORTRAITS AND FOUR THEORIES OF LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 88

Robyn Teal’s Classroom: Learning to Read Means Focusing on Skills 88

Bottom-up theory of literacy development 91

Skills model 91

Another glimpse into Ms. Teal’s classroom 92

Ms. Sharonda Battle’s Classroom: Learning to Read Means Understanding the Meaning of Words 92

Top-down theory of literacy development 96

Whole language model of literacy development 96

Another glimpse into Ms. Battle’s classroom 97

Mr. Thomas Ruby’s Classroom: Learning to Read Means Learning How to Respond to Text 98

Transactional theory of reading 99

Reader response model 101

Another glimpse into Mr. Ruby’s classroom 102

Ms. Pauline Fuller’s Classroom: Learning How to Read Means Critically Examining the Text 103

Critical theories and critical literacy 104

Four-resource model 105

Halliday + 107

Another glimpse into Ms. Fuller’s classroom 107

LOOKING ACROSS THE FOUR READING MODELS 108

IN CLOSING 110

5 Literacy Programs and Approaches 112

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Binns Rethinks Sustained, Silent Reading Time 112

FOUR DECADES OF CHANGE IN READING AND WRITING CURRICULUM 115

Skills: Grammar, Decoding, and Drills 115

Whole Language: Authentic Texts and Meaning Making 116

The Balanced Approach to Literacy Development

Prescriptive Reading Programs and Materials:

Connections to “Scientifically Based Reading

Research” 117

BASAL READERS: THE MOST FAMILIAR READING MATERIAL IN THE CLASSROOM 119

Common Characteristics and Features 119

Differences among Basal Programs 121

Literature-based basals 121

Phonics-oriented basals 121

Classroom Organizational Structures when Using Basal Materials 122

Organizing Daily Instruction When Using Reading Anthologies and Leveled Texts 123

Reading anthology lesson 123

Guided reading group lesson 124

CONCERNS WITH PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES 126

One Size Does Not Fit All 126

The Lack of Additional Support or Alternatives 127

THE READER/WRITER WORKSHOP APPROACH FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 128

Designing a Literacy-Rich Reader/Writer Workshop 128

Organizing a Reader/Writer Workshop 129

Spaces and places in the classroom to support literacy development 130

Flexible reading groups 132

Structure of a Reader/Writer Workshop 132

Mini-lessons 133

Independent reading and literature discussions 135

Writing and responding 135

Reading and writing conferences 138

Status of the class 138

Sharing 138

Summary of Teaching Structures for Reader/Writer Workshops 139

IN CLOSING 142

Part II: Understanding the Reading Process in Classrooms

6 Entering into the Literacy Landscape: Emergent Readers and Writers 144

OPENING VIGNETTE: Kadin Reads at Home 144

HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF EMERGENT

LITERACY 146

Reading Readiness 147

Emergent Literacy 148

ORAL LANGUAGE LEARNING: WHAT ITMEANS FOR

EMERGENT READING AND WRITING PRACTICES 150

Conditions for Developing Oral Language Skills 151

Conditions to Support Young English Language

Learners in Preschool Settings 152

Dimensions of Emergent Literacy 153

Concepts of Texts 154

Concepts of Words 156

Concepts of Letters and Sounds 157

Alphabet knowledge 157

Phonemic awareness 158

Assessing the Dimensions of Emergent Literacy 160

EMERGENT WRITING 161

Inventing and Refining Written Language Forms 161

Emergent Spelling 162

Random marks 162

Prephonemic 163

Early phonemic 163

Letter-naming 163

Transitional 164

Emergent Writing and Meaning Making 165

LITERACY AND TECHNOLOGY IN EARLY LITERACY SETTINGS 166

Concepts of Screen 167

Electronic/Talking Books 168

LITERACY EVENTS AND PRACTICES: PROMOTING EMERGENT READING AND WRITING 169

Noticing Environmental Print 169

Writing Centers 170

Storybook Reading 170

Storybook Reading as a Cultural Practice 171

Sociodramatic Play Settings 172

Language Experience Approach Stories (LEA) and Digital Language Experience Approach (D-LEA) 172

IN CLOSING 176

7 Beginning Readers and Writers 178

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Simon’s Class Reads There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly 178

GUIDING PRINCIPLES TO PROMOTE BEGINNING READING AND WRITING 181

EXPLORING BEGINNING READING THROUGH THE FOUR-RESOURCE MODEL 184

Code Breaking to Exemplify How Words Work 184

Language Play and Rhymes 186

Word Families 187

Alphabet Knowledge 188

High-frequency words 192

Mini-lessons for Code Breaking 192

Becoming a Text Participant 193

Making connections 193

Making predictions and inferences 194

Visualizing 196

Understanding How Texts Are Used 196

Thinking Critically about Texts 197

READER/WRITER WORKSHOPS FOR BEGINNING READERS 199

Creating a Routine for Primary Grade Reading and Writing Workshops 199

Mini-lessons 200

Reading and Responding 200

Read aloud in workshop settings 201

Quality picture books for reading aloud 201

Approaches to reading aloud 202

Shared reading events 205

Literature discussions 207

Independent and partner reading 207

Writing 208

Reading and Writing Conferences and Record Keeping 210

CONNECTIONS TO STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS 212

IN CLOSING 214

8 Intermediate and Accomplished Readers and Writers 216

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms Bell Discovers Her Fifth Grade Readers 216

GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR INTERMEDIATE AND ACCOMPLISHED READERS AND WRITERS 218

Characteristics of Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 219

THE FOUR-RESOURCE MODEL FOR INTERMEDIATE AND ACCOMPLISHED READERS AND WRITERS 219

Code Breaking for Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 222

Word study strategy 222

Developmental word study and spelling 224

Reading with fluency 227

Text Participant Practices with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 230

Reading easy books with understanding 231

Vocabulary development inside text participant practices 232

Connecting to the meaning of a text 235

Retelling as an avenue for understanding 239

Text Use with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers and Writers 240

Critical Practices with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 242

READER/WRITER WORKSHOP STRUCTURE FOR INTERMEDIATE AND ACCOMPLISHED READERS AND WRITERS 244

Text Sets for Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 244

Mini-lessons in Reader/Writer Workshops for Intermediate and Upper Grades 245

Literature Discussions with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers and Writers 246

Reading and Writing Conferences 247

Teacher roles during reading conferences 247

CONNECTIONS TO STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS 248

IN CLOSING 250

9 Effective Assessment Practices for Reading and Writing 252

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Taylor Invites Alternative Response 252

FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS 255

THE PROLIFERATION OF ASSESSMENTS 255

PURPOSES FOR ASSESSMENTS 256

LITERACY ASSESSMENTS REVEAL IDEOLOGIES ABOUT LEARNING AND LITERACY 258

THE CYCLE OF REFLECTION – ASSESSMENT – INSTRUCTION 260

WHO IS INTERESTED IN ASSESSMENT?

HIGH STAKES FOR PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND SCHOOLS 261

TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT 262

Standardized and Multiple Choice Tests 262

Informal Reading Inventory and Qualitative Reading Inventory 264

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES 265

Characteristics of Alternative Assessments 265

TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES 266

Documentary/Observation 266

Miscue analysis 267

Retrospective miscue analysis 267

Running records 271

Checklists 272

Classroom observations and anecdotal records 274

Responsive Listening Assessments 275

Retellings 276

Group discussions 276

Reading and writing conferences 277

GATHERING INFORMATION TO USE IN ASSESSING READERS’ AND WRITERS’ GROWTH IN LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 277

Portfolio Systems 278

Writing portfolios 278

Reading portfolios 279

ASSESSMENT PRACTICES ALIGN WITH CODE BREAKING, TEXT MEANING, TEXT USE, AND CRITICAL PRACTICES 279

Code Breaking Assessments 280

Text Participant Assessments 283

Text Use Assessments 286

Critical Practices Assessments 286

IN CLOSING 288

Part III: Refining Effective Instruction

10 Facilitating Meaningful Literature Discussions 290

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Wilson’s Fourth Grade Students Talk about The Mouse and the Motorcycle 290

AN INSIDE LOOK: TWO VERY DIFFERENT LITERATURE DISCUSSION GROUPS 292

GOALS FOR LITERATURE DISCUSSIONS 294

HOW READERS MAKE MEANING FROM A TEXT: READER RESPONSE THEORY 295

Readers Bring Their Sociocultural Backgrounds to the Text 295

Readers Transact with the Text 296

Ms. Hammel’s first and second grade students discuss Tomas and the Library Lady 296

Stance: A Reader’s Attitude and Purpose 298

The Strategic/Literary Dimension: Is the Text for Information or Enjoyment? 298

Contextual dimension: Where does the discussion occur? 302

Ideological dimension: What beliefs does the reader have? 302

Making Stance Visible in Literature Discussions 304

INTERPRETIVE AUTHORITY: HOW STUDENTS REACT TO EACH OTHER’S COMMENTS 308

Teacher-led Discussions 310

Student-led Discussions 310

The evaluator role in student-led discussions 311

Teacher-led, Student-centered Discussions 312

Ms. Reiner’s fifth grade students discuss Tomás and the Library Lady 314

Encouraging Readers to Share Interpretive Authority during Literature Discussions 315

SUPPORTING THE READER IN HAVING A FLEXIBLE VIEW OF THE TEXT 317

IN CLOSING 318

11 Reading to Learn: Using Nonfiction and Electronic Media to Support Literacy Development 320

OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms Gallagher and Ms Reiner Invite their Students to Inquire 320

USING INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM 322

Key Principles of an Inquiry-based Curriculum 325

Problem Posing 326

Topic Choice 327

Integrating Reading and Writing Strategies 327

Sources of Knowledge and the Teacher’s Role 328

THE ROLE OF NONFICTION IN DEVELOPING READERS AND WRITERS 329

Why Nonfiction Matters 330

Inviting Children to Use Nonfiction for Inquiry-based and Content-area Learning 331

Evaluating Nonfiction Texts 332

Categories of nonfiction texts 333

Concept 333

Identification 333

Procedural 333

Biography 334

Informational storybooks 334

INCORPORATING NONFICTION INTO A READING AND WRITING CURRICULUM 334

Read Informational Texts Aloud 335

Provide Time to Read in Content Areas 336

Pairing Nonfiction with Fiction 337

READING STRATEGIES FOR NONFICTION AND CONTENT AREA READING MATERIAL 337

Code Breaking Strategies for Nonfiction Text 337

Text Participant Strategies for Nonfiction Texts 340

Text Use Strategies for Nonfiction Texts 340

Critical Practices Strategies for Nonfiction Texts 343

NONFICTION TEXTS IN MULTIMODAL ENVIRONMENTS 344

Dimensions of Multimodal Literacy 346

Integrating Electronic Media into Literacy Instruction 346

Linking Electronic Media with Informational Literacy 348

Scaffolding Reading and Writing Strategies with Electronic Media 349

IN CLOSING 350

12 Working With Struggling Readers and Writers 352

OPENING VIGNETTE: Mrs. Laughlin Supports Rakwaun as a Reader and Writer 352

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO STRUGGLING READING AND WRITING 355

Cognitive Processing 355

Motivation and Engagement 355

Teacher Beliefs and Attitudes 357

IDENTIFYING STRUGGLING READERS AND WRITERS DURING LITERACY EVENTS 358

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES FOR STRUGGLING READERS AND WRITERS 359

Interest and Background 360

Read Alouds to Extend Comprehension 361

Independent Reading Time 361

Scheduling Easy Reading time to Gain Confidence 363

Scaffolding 364

Comprehension Monitoring Strategies 365

LITERACY REFORM EFFORTS FOR STRUGGLING SCHOOLS 368

Reading Recovery 368

Literacy Collaborative 369

Four Blocks 370

Success for All 371

America’s Choice 372

TEACHING ALL CHILDREN TO LEAD LITERATE LIVES IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 373

IN CLOSING 375

APPENDICES 378

GLOSSARY 398

REFERENCES 403

CHILDREN’S LITERATURE REFERENCES 417

TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS 420

PHOTO CREDITS 423

INDEX 425