Introducing Geography 4

Spheres, Systems, and Cycles 10

Physical Geography, Environment, and Global Change 13

Tools in Physical Geography 15

Maps and Cartography 17

The Global Positioning System 21

Geographic Information Systems 22

Remote Sensing for Physical Geography 24

Earth Visualization Tools 30

A Look Ahead 33

Chapter 1 The Earth as a Rotating Planet 36

The Shape of the Earth 38

The Earth’s Rotation 39

The Geographic Grid 40

Map Projections 42

Global Time 46

The Earth’s Revolution Around the Sun 49

A Look Ahead 54

Chapter 2 The Earth’s Global Energy Balance 56

Eye on Global Change: The Ozone Layer— Shield to Life 58

Electromagnetic Radiation 59

Insolation over the Globe 63

Composition of the Atmosphere 69

Energy Transfer 69

The Global Energy System 70

Net Radiation, Latitude, and the Energy Balance 75

Focus on Remote Sensing

A Look Ahead 79

Chapter 3 Air Temperature 82

Eye on Global Change: Carbon Dioxide—On the Increase 84

Surface and Air Temperature 85

Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere 93

Daily and Annual Cycles of Air Temperature 95

World Patterns of Air Temperature 99

The Temperature Record and Global Warming 103

A Look Ahead 109

Chapter 4 Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation 112

Eye on Global Change: Acid Deposition 114

Water in the Environment 114

Humidity 120

Adiabatic Processes 122

Clouds and Fog 124

Focus on Remote Sensing

Precipitation 128

Types of Precipitation 134

Thunderstorms 137

Tornadoes 140

Air Quality 143

A Look Ahead 147

Chapter 5 Winds and Global Circulation 150

Eye on Global Change: El Niño 152

Atmospheric Pressure 153

Wind 155

Cyclones and Anticyclones 159

Global Wind and Pressure Patterns 162

Winds Aloft 166

Ocean Circulation 172

A Look Ahead 180

Chapter 6 Weather Systems 184

Eye on Global Change: Cloud Cover, Precipitation, and Global Warming 186

Air Masses and Fronts 187

Midlatitude Anticyclones and Cyclones 193

Tropical and Equatorial Weather Systems 203

Focus on Remote Sensing

Poleward Transport of Energy and Moisture 213

A Look Ahead 215

Chapter 7 Global Climates and Climate Change 218

Eye on Global Change: Drought in the African Sahel 220

Keys to Climate 222

Climate Classification 225

Low-Latitude Climates (Group I) 231

Midlatitude Climates (Group II) 241

High-Latitude Climates (Group III) 249

Climate Change 253

A Look Ahead 256

Special Supplement: The Köppen Climate System 260

Chapter 8 Biogeographic Processes 264

Eye on Global Change: Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle 266

Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems 268

Ecological Biogeography 276

Ecological Succession 284

Focus on Remote Sensing

Historical Biogeography 288

Biodiversity 296

A Look Ahead 298

Chapter 9 Global Biogeography 302

Eye on Global Change: Exploitation of the Low-Latitude Rainforest Ecosystem 304

Natural Vegetation 305

Terrestrial Ecosystems—The Biomes 308

Forest Biome 313

Savanna and Grassland Biomes 323

Desert and Tundra Biomes 328

Focus on Remote Sensing

Climate and Altitude Gradients 336

A Look Ahead 338

Chapter 10 Global Soils 340

Eye on Global Change: Global Change and Agriculture 342

The Nature of the Soil 344

Soil Chemistry 348

Soil Moisture 350

Soil Development 352

The Global Scope of Soils 357

A Look Ahead 370

Chapter 11 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 374

The Changing Earth 377

The Structure of the Earth 379

Earth Materials and the Cycle of Rock Change 381

Global Topography 391

Focus on Remote Sensing

Plate Tectonics 398

A Look Ahead 409

Chapter 12 Tectonic and Volcanic Landforms 414

Eye on Global Change: The Great Tohoku Earthquake of 2011 416

Tectonic Landforms 416

Earthquakes 426

Volcanic Activity and Landforms 431

Focus on Remote Sensing

A Look Ahead 441

Chapter 13 Weathering and Mass Wasting 444

Eye on Global Change: The Madison Slide 446

Weathering 448

Slopes and Slope Processes 453

Mass Wasting 454

A Look Ahead 462

Chapter 14 Freshwater of the Continents 464

Eye on Global Change: The Aral Sea 466

Freshwater and the Hydrologic Cycle 468

Groundwater 470

Groundwater Use and Management 476

Surface Water and Streamflow 478

Flooding 484

Lakes 487

Freshwater as a Natural Resource 491

A Look Ahead 495

Chapter 15 Landforms Made by Running Water 498

Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition 500

Stream Gradation and Evolution 506

Focus on Remote Sensing

Fluvial Landforms 515

Fluvial Processes in an Arid Climate 518

A Look Ahead 523

Chapter 16 Landforms Made by Waves and Wind 526

Eye on Global Change: Global Change and Coastal Environments 528

The Work of Waves and Tides 530

Coastal Landforms 537

Wind Action 547

Eolian Landforms 551

A Look Ahead 557

Chapter 17 Glacial and Periglacial Landforms 560

Eye on Global Change: Ice Sheets, Sea Ice, and Global Warming 562

Types of Glaciers 564

Glacial Processes 567

Glacial Landforms 569

Focus on Remote Sensing

Periglacial Processes and Landforms 578

Global Climate and Glaciation 582

A Look Ahead 586

Appendix 1 Climate Definitions and Boundaries 591

Appendix 2 Conversion Factors 592

Appendix 3 Topographic Map Symbols 593

Glossary 595

Illustration Credits 623

Index 625