Part I Energy Overview 1

1 Glossary of Key Energy Terms 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Importance of Energy Literacy 4

1.3 Glossary 4

1.4 Symbols and Acronyms 42

References 47

2 Introduction to Energy and Energy Issues 48

2.1 Introduction 48

2.2 Early History of Energy 49

2.3 Later History of Energy 50

2.4 Energy “Emergencies” 50

2.5 Net Energy Analysis 51

2.6 Hydrogen as an Energy/Fuel 53

2.7 The Future 54

References 56

3 Energy Resources 57

3.1 Introduction 57

3.2 Coal 58

3.3 Oil 59

3.4 Natural Gas 60

3.5 Shale Oil/Tar Sands 62

3.5.1 Shale Oil 62

3.5.2 Tar Sands 63

3.6 Solar Energy 63

3.6.1 Passive Solar Lighting and Heating 64

3.6.2 Solar Electricity Production 65

3.7 Nuclear Energy 66

3.8 Geothermal Energy 68

3.9 Wind Energy 69

3.10 Hydrokinetic Energy 71

3.10.1 Hydropower 71

3.10.2 Tidal Energy 72

3.10.3 Ocean Thermal Energy 72

3.10.4 Wave Energy 73

3.11 Biomass-Based Fuels 73

References 74

4 Environmental Policy and Regulatory Considerations for Hydrogen Energy 77
Marybeth Reynolds

4.1 Introduction 77

4.2 Opportunities and Benefits for the Emerging Hydrogen Energy Industry 78

4.2.1 The Production of Hydrogen 78

4.2.2 Clean, Green Zero-Carbon Hydrogen 79

4.2.3 Low-Carbon Blue Hydrogen 80

4.2.4 Fuel Cells 80

4.2.5 Hydrogen’s Potential Uses in Decarbonization 81

4.2.6 Challenges 81

4.3 Hydrogen Energy Policy Priorities 82

4.3.1 Keep the Focus on Climate Goals and Deploy Hydrogen Strategically 82

4.3.2 Prioritize Equity and Public Health 83

4.3.3 Consider Long-Term Efficiency and Cost 83

4.3.4 Adopt Rigorous Standards and Definitions for Clean Hydrogen 84

4.4 U.S. Federal Energy Policies and Regulatory Frameworks 84

4.4.1 Hydrogen in Historical U.S. Energy Policy 84

4.4.2 Significant Federal Policies and Initiatives Since 2016 85

4.4.2.1 H2@Scale, 2016 85

4.4.2.2 Hydrogen Program Plan, 2020 86

4.4.2.3 Hydrogen Shot, 2021 86

4.4.2.4 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, 2021 87

4.4.2.5 Inflation Reduction Act, 2022 87

4.4.3 Current Federal Regulation of Hydrogen 88

4.5 The Role of the States 91

4.6 Global Hydrogen Energy Policies and Priorities 92

4.6.1 Summary of Hydrogen Strategies in Key Global Markets 92

4.6.2 Policy Priorities to Accelerate a Global Market for Clean Hydrogen 92

4.6.2.1 Establishing Hydrogen Strategies 92

4.6.2.2 Developing and Adopting International Codes and Regulations 93

4.6.2.3 Leveraging Domestic Resources and Export Opportunities 93

4.7 Summary 93

References 93

5 Thermodynamic Considerations 96

5.1 Introduction 96

5.2 Energy Fundamentals and Principles 97

5.2.1 Potential Energy 97

5.2.2 Kinetic Energy 97

5.2.3 Energy Fundamentals 98

5.2.4 Energy Principles 98

5.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 100

5.4 Enthalpy Effects 101

5.4.1 Sensible Enthalpy Effects of Heating 101

5.4.2 Latent Enthalpy Changes 102

5.4.3 Chemical Reaction Enthalpy Effects 103

5.5 Second Law Calculations 104

5.6 Phase Equilibrium 105

5.7 Stoichiometry 106

5.8 Chemical Reaction Equilibrium 107

5.9 Conservation Laws 108

5.9.1 Conservation of Mass 109

5.9.2 Conservation of Energy 109

5.10 Ideal Gas Law 110

References 112

6 Fuel Cells 113

6.1 Introduction 113

6.2 Electrical Units 114

6.3 Fuel Cell Overview 114

6.4 Unit Cells 115

6.4.1 Basic Structure 115

6.4.2 Internal Fuel Cell Process Details 116

6.5 Critical Functions of Cell Components 117

6.6 Fuel Cell Stacking 118

6.6.1 Planar-Bipolar Stacking Fuel Cell (PBSFC) 118

6.6.2 Stacks with Tubular Cells 119

6.7 Fuel Cell Systems 120

6.8 Fuel Cell Types 120

6.8.1 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 123

6.8.1.1 Advantages 123

6.8.1.2 Disadvantages 123

6.8.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) 123

6.8.2.1 Advantages 124

6.8.2.2 Disadvantages 124

6.8.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) 124

6.8.3.1 Advantages 124

6.8.3.2 Disadvantages 125

6.8.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 125

6.8.4.1 Advantages 125

6.8.4.2 Disadvantages 125

6.8.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 125

6.8.5.1 Advantages 126

6.8.5.2 Disadvantages 126

6.9 Fuel Cell Characteristics 126

6.10 Overall Advantages/Disadvantages 127

6.11 Batteries 128

6.12 Summary 129

References 130

Part II Select Hydrogen Energy Topics 131

7 Hydrogen Energy Overview 133

7.1 Introduction 133

7.2 Early History 135

7.3 Processing 136

7.4 Storage 138

7.4.1 Physical-Based Storage 138

7.4.2 Materials-Based Storage 139

7.5 Transportation and Transmission 139

7.6 Uses 140

7.6.1 Potential Role of Ammonia for Alternative Vehicle Fuel in a Hydrogen Economy 141

7.7 Environmental Issues 142

References 143

8 Government Hydrogen Programs 144

8.1 Introduction 144

8.2 Department of Energy Programs 145

8.3 Other Federal Programs 146

8.4 State Programs 146

8.4.1 California 147

8.4.2 Oregon 147

8.4.3 Washington 148

8.4.4 South Carolina 148

8.5 Tax Incentives 148

8.5.1 ITC for Fuel Cell Property 149

8.5.2 New Qualified Fuel Cell Motor Vehicle Credit 149

8.5.3 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Refueling Property Credit 149

8.5.4 Alternative Fuel Credit 150

8.6 Project Financing 150

8.7 Insurance Coverage 151

8.8 Stakeholder Engagement 151

References 152

9 Hydrogen Physical and Chemical Properties 153
Onwukaeme Chibuzo Kenneth

9.1 Introduction 153

9.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 153

9.2.1 Physical Properties 154

9.2.2 Chemical Properties 156

9.3 Properties of Mixtures 158

9.4 Properties of Hydrogen 159

9.4.1 Chemical and Molecular Properties of Hydrogen 159

9.4.2 Physical Properties of Hydrogen 162

9.5 Hydrogen Isotopes 163

9.6 The Hydrogen Bond 165

9.7 The Quintessential Energy Carrier 166

References 167

10 Hydrogen-Bearing Compounds 169

10.1 Introduction 169

10.2 Water 170

10.3 Deuterium 171

10.4 Ammonia 176

10.5 Methane 177

10.6 Other Hydrocarbon Molecules 179

10.6.1 Open-Chain Hydrocarbons 179

10.6.2 The Alkene Series 179

10.6.3 The Alkyne Series 180

10.6.4 Cyclic Hydrocarbons 180

10.6.5 Other Organic Compound Groups 180

10.7 The Alkane Series 180

References 181

11 Hydrogen Production Processes 182

11.1 Introduction 182

11.2 Overview of Hydrogen Production Processes 185

11.3 Fossil Fuels 186

11.4 Water Splitting Production Processes 188

11.4.1 Water Electrolysis Production Process 189

11.4.2 Photoelectrical Hydrogen Production Process 190

11.4.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting Production Process 190

11.5 Biomass Production Processes 191

11.6 Hydrogen Purification 194

11.6.1 Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 195

11.6.2 Adsorptive Purification 195

11.6.3 Cryogenic Liquid Purification 196

11.6.4 Carbon Monoxide Removal 196

11.7 Hydrogen Laboratory Processes 196

11.8 Emerging Hydrogen Technologies 197

References 198

12 Hydrogen Storage 199

12.1 Introduction 199

12.2 Chemical Industry Storage Options 200

12.2.1 Gas Storage 200

12.2.2 Liquid Storage 200

12.2.3 Tank Details 201

12.2.4 Storage Batteries 201

12.3 Hydrogen Storage Overview 202

12.3.1 Compressed Gas 202

12.3.2 Liquid Storage 202

12.3.3 Underground Storage 202

12.3.4 Metal Hydrides 203

12.3.5 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers 203

12.4 Gaseous Hydrogen Storage 203

12.4.1 Composite Tanks 203

12.4.2 Glass Microspheres 204

12.5 Liquid Hydrogen Storage 204

12.5.1 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen 204

12.5.2 Storage as a Constituent in Other Liquids 204

12.5.3 Rechargeable Organic Liquids 205

12.6 Solid Hydrogen Storage 205

12.6.1 Carbon and Other High Surface Area Materials 206

12.6.1.1 Carbon-Based Materials 206

12.6.1.2 Other High Surface Area Materials 206

12.6.2 Rechargeable Metal Hydrides 206

12.6.2.1 Alanates 207

12.6.2.2 Borohydrides 207

12.6.3 Water-Reactive Chemical Hydrides 207

12.6.4 Thermal Chemical Hydrides 207

12.7 The Moon Project 207

12.8 Summary of Hydrogen Storage Strategies 210

References 211

13 Hydrogen Transportation and Transmission 213

13.1 Introduction 213

13.2 Hydrogen Transportation/Transmission Options 214

13.2.1 Motor Carriers 215

13.2.2 Pipelines 215

13.2.3 Ships 215

13.2.4 Trains 216

13.3 Traditional Transportation Options 216

13.3.1 Air Transportation 216

13.3.2 Rail Transportation 218

13.3.3 Water Transportation 218

13.3.4 Highway Transportation 219

13.4 Chemical Industry Transportation Options 219

13.4.1 Transportation of Liquids 219

13.4.2 Transportation of Gases 220

13.5 Hydrogen Transportation: Pipelines 220

13.6 Hydrogen Transportation: Mobile 221

13.7 On-Site Hydrogen Production 222

13.8 Transportation via Chemical Hydrogen Carriers 223

13.9 International/Global Hydrogen Transportation 223

13.10 Regulation Issues 224

13.11 New Hydrogen Transmission Options 226

References 227

14 Hydrogen Conversion 229

14.1 Introduction 229

14.2 Energy Conversion Technical Details 230

14.3 Electric Power Systems 231

14.4 The Grid System 234

14.4.1 Storage Costs Multiply to Achieve 90% Capacity Factor for Large Solar PV 236

14.4.2 Cost of Vogtle 3 and 4 Nuclear is Less than PV with Storage for 90% Capacity Factor 238

14.5 Conversion: The Combustion Process 238

14.6 Conversion: The Fuel Cell Process 240

References 241

15 Hydrogen Uses 243

15.1 Introduction 243

15.2 Power Generation 245

15.3 Transportation 246

15.4 Industry Feedstock 248

15.5 Hydrogen-Containing Feedstock Chemicals 251

15.6 Heating 252

15.7 Energy Storage 253

References 254

16 The Quintessential Hydrogen Byproduct: Potable Water 256

16.1 Introduction 256

16.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Water 257

16.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 258

16.4 The Desalination Process 259

16.5 Traditional Seawater Desalination Processes 260

16.5.1 Evaporation Processes 260

16.5.2 Reverse Osmosis 261

16.5.3 Crystallization Processes 262

16.6 New Process Options for Potable Water Production 262

16.6.1 System and Method for Obtaining Potable Water from Fossil Fuels 263

16.6.2 System and Method for Obtaining Potable Water Employing Geothermal Energy 264

16.6.3 Water Requirement of Electrolysis 265

16.7 The Theodore Hydrogen Water Byproduct Process 266

References 267

17 Safety Considerations 268

17.1 Introduction 268

17.2 Hydrogen Details 270

17.3 Worker Safety Regulations and Requirements 271

17.4 Site Safety Plans 273

17.5 Chemical Safety Data Sheets 274

17.6 The Hydrogen SDS 280

References 284

Part III Technical Engineering Issues 285

18 Environmental Health and Hazard Risk Assessment 287

18.1 Introduction 287

18.2 The Health Risk Assessment Process 288

18.3 The Health Risk Assessment Process Components 290

18.3.1 Health Problem Identification 290

18.3.2 Dose–Response Assessment 291

18.3.3 Exposure Assessment 292

18.3.4 Risk Characterization 293

18.4 Hazard Risk Assessment Process 294

18.5 The Hazard Risk Assessment Process Components 295

18.5.1 Hazard Identification 296

18.5.2 Hazard/Accident Probability 297

18.5.3 Accident Consequence Evaluation 298

18.6 Future Trends 299

References 300

19 Energy–Environmental Interactions 301

19.1 Introduction 301

19.2 U.S. Hydrogen Energy Policy 302

19.3 U.S. Energy–Environmental Policy Issues 303

19.4 Individual State Energy Policies 305

19.5 Global Energy Policies 306

19.6 Environmental Concerns: A Technological Mandate 309

19.7 Net Energy Concepts 311

19.8 Interaction with Other Goals 313

References 314

20 Ethical Considerations 316

20.1 Introduction 316

20.2 The Present State of Ethics 317

20.3 Dos and Don’ts 318

20.4 Integrity 319

20.5 Moral Issues 320

20.6 Guardianship 322

20.7 Engineering Ethics 323

20.8 Future Trends in Professional and Environmental Ethics 324

20.9 Case Studies 326

20.9.1 Case Study 1 326

20.9.2 Case Study 2 327

20.9.3 Case Study 3 327

References 328

21 Economic Considerations 330

21.1 Introduction 330

21.2 Economic and Finance Definitions 332

21.2.1 Simple Interest 332

21.2.2 Compound Interest 333

21.2.3 Present Worth 333

21.2.4 Time Value of Money 334

21.2.5 Depreciation 334

21.2.6 Equipment Cost and Cost Indexes 335

21.2.7 Capital Recovery Factor 335

21.2.8 Net Present Worth 336

21.2.9 Perpetual Life 336

21.2.10 Break-Even Point 337

21.2.11 Approximate Rate of Return 337

21.2.12 Exact Rate of Return 337

21.2.13 Bonds 337

21.2.14 Incremental Cost 338

21.2.15 Inflation 338

21.3 Investment and Risks 338

21.4 The Traditional Economic Evaluation Process 339

21.5 Capital and Operating Costs 341

21.6 Project and Process Evaluation 342

21.7 Hydrogen Energy Economy Considerations 342

21.8 Concluding Remarks 344

References 346

22 Optimization Considerations 347

22.1 Introduction 347

22.2 History of Optimization 349

22.3 Scope of Optimization 351

22.4 General Analytical Formulation of the Optimum 352

22.5 Mathematical Concepts in Linear Programming 355

22.6 Applied Concepts in Linear Programming 356

22.7 Optimization of Existing Systems 359

References 362

23 Illustrative Examples 363

23.1 Introduction 363

23.2 Energy Principles 363

23.2.1 The Ideal Gas Law 363

23.2.2 Mass Conservation Law 364

23.2.3 Stoichiometry 364

23.3 Thermodynamics 365

23.3.1 Partial Pressure 365

23.3.2 Gross Heating Value of a Fuel 366

23.3.3 Material and Energy Balance Calculations 367

23.4 Energy Systems 368

23.4.1 Energy Conversion Efficiency 368

23.4.2 Energy–Mass Relationships 369

23.4.3 Energy Storage 369

23.5 Environmental Issues 370

23.5.1 Catalyst Recovery 370

23.5.2 Explosion Overpressure 371

23.5.3 Weibull Distribution Calculation 373

23.6 Ethics 374

23.6.1 Domestic Ethical Issues 374

23.6.2 Production Increase Demands 374

23.6.3 ISO 14000 Consulting Dilemma 374

23.7 Economics 375

23.7.1 Optimum Pipe Diameter Considerations 375

23.7.2 Optimum Hydrogen Plant Profit 376

23.7.3 Plant Selection Based on Tax Credit Availability 378

23.8 SDS Information 379

23.8.1 Layman’s Definition of an SDS 379

23.8.2 Limitation of SDSs 379

23.8.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics Contained in SDSs 380

23.9 Optimization 380

23.9.1 Profit Model Optimization 380

23.9.2 Hydrogen Plant Operation 381

23.9.3 Optimization of Utility Conversion to Hydrogen 382

References 383

Index 384