1 Natural Resources: Thoughts, Words, and Deeds 1

What is a Natural Resource? 1

Resource Cognition and Value 1

Kinds of Resources 4

Limits to Resource Classification 5

Conserving Resources: What Does It Mean? 5

ISSUE 1.1: Two Contrasting Views of Natural Resource Management 6

Environmental Ethics 8

Environmental Justice 8

What Values Do You Bring to the Natural Resources Debate? 8

Nature, Economics, and The Politics of Natural Resource Use 9

The Systems Approach 10

General Outline of the Book 11

References and Additional Reading 12

Study Questions 13

2 Economics of Natural Resources 14

Introduction 14

Economics and the Use of Resources 15

Characteristics of Natural Resources 15

Pricing Systems 17

Economic Systems 17

Supply and Demand 18

Market Imperfections 18

Determining Resource Value: Quantifying the Intangibles 19

Benefit-Cost Analysis 19

ISSUE 2.1: European Integration and the Environment: EEA and EIONET 20

Quantifying Value 21

ISSUE 2.2: What Is the Value of a Human Life? 22

Management and Allocation of Resources 24

Ownership 24

Social Costs 27

Economics of the Individual Firm 28

Business and the Environment: Recent Trends 29

Diversification and Multinational Corporations 29

ISSUE 2.3: The Value of Nature 30

The Greening of Business 32

Deregulation 33

Conclusions 33

References and Additional Reading 34

Study Questions 35

3 Environmental History, Politics, and Decision- Making 30

Introduction 36

Natural Resource Use: A Historical Perspective 36

Development of Natural Resource Policy 37

U.S. Environmental Policy 37

International Policy 45

ISSUE: 3.1: In Fairness to All: Agenda 21

and Environmental Equity 48

Current Natural Resource Policy 49

How Decisions Are Made 50

Resource Decision-Making in the United States 50

International Environmental Decision-Making 51

ISSUE: 3.2: Politics and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) 52

The Decision-Making Process 54

Organizations 54

Strategies 55

The Role of Public Interest 56

The “New” Environmental Politics 57

References and Additional Reading 58

Study Questions 60

4 Ecologic Perspectives on Natural Resources 61

Earth’s Resource Environments 61

Bioregions 62

Human Use of the Land 66

ISSUE 4.1: What Happens When the Geography Changes? 67

Energy Transfers and Material Flows 69

Carbon Cycle 70

ISSUE 4.2: Silent Spring versus Our Stolen Future 71

Nitrogen and Phosphorus 72

Hydrologic Cycle 73

Food Chains 74

Carrying Capacity 76

The Scope of Human Impact 77

The Extent of Environmental Pollution 77

Human Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles 81

Ecological Concepts in Resource Management 82

Any Given Environment Has Finite Carrying Capacity 82

Be Aware of Limiting Factors 83

Minimize Disruption by Mimicking Nature 83

Close the Loops 84

Conclusions 85

References and Additional Reading 85

Study Questions 86

5 the Human Population 87

A Brief History of Population Growth 88

Basic Demographics 89

Birth, Death, and Fertility 90

ISSUE 5.1: AIDS and Population Growth in Africa 92

Age Structure 95

Migration 98

Trends in Population Growth 99

The Distribution of Population and Population Growth 100

Regional Disparities 101

Increasing Urbanization 101

ISSUE 5.2: Megacities: The New Urban Demographic Transition 102

Population Control Strategies 102

Socioeconomic Conditions and Fertility 103

Contraception and Family Planning 103

Population Growth and Affluence 104

Conclusions 105

References and Additional Reading 105

Study Questions 106

6 Agriculture and Food Production 107

Food Production Resources 108

Crops 108

Livestock 111

The U.S. Agricultural Land Resource Base 112

Modern American Agricultural Systems 115

Natural Resources for Agricultural Production 115

Soil 116

Water 116

ISSUE 6.1: Agriculture, CO 2 , and Climate: The Only Certainty Is Change 118

Fertilizers and Pesticides 120

Seed 122

Labor and Machines 124

ISSUE 6.2: The Digital Farmer 125

Animals in the Food Production System 125

Environmental Impacts of Food Production 128

Soil Erosion 128

Rangeland Degradation 133

Agricultural Policy and Management 136

Subsidies 136

ISSUE 6.3: Agricultural Subsidies, Trade, and Poverty in the Developing World 136

Sustainable Agriculture 138

Rangeland Management 138

Conclusions 140

References and Additional Reading 140

Study Questions 141

7 Forests 142

Forests as Multiple-Use Resources 142

Forests as Fiber Resources 144

Principles of Sustainable Forestry 144

Forest Management 144

ISSUE 7.1: Chipko: Grass-Roots Environmentalism or a Struggle for Economic Development? 146

Forest Products Technology 148

Nonfiber Uses of Forest Resources 150

Habitat 150

Water Resources 151

ISSUE 7.2: The Pacific Lumber Saga 152

Recreation 154

Carbon Storage 154

The Role of Fire 155

Deforestation and Reforestation: Three Examples 157

The Amazon Forest 157

The Siberian Forest 159

The U.S. Forestland 160

Conclusion 166

References and Additional Reading 166

Study Questions 167

8 Biodiversity and Habitat 168

The Value of Biodiversity 168

Ecological Interactions 169

Potential Resources 169

The Inherent Value of Species 170

The Pace and Processes of Extinction 172

Causes of Biodiversity Loss 175

ISSUE 8.1: The Mass Extinction of Freshwater Mussels 178

Conservation of Biodiversity 180

Species Protection 180

Habitat Conservation 183

The Endangered Species Act 186

ISSUE 8.2: Ecotourism: Loving Wild Places to Death 187

The Convention on Biological Diversity 188

Conclusions 189

References and Additional Reading 190

Study Questions 192

9 Marine Resources: Common Property Dilemmas 193

Introduction 193

The Marine Environment 193

Physical Properties 193

ISSUE 9.1: Salmon in the Pacific Northwest 196

Habitat and Biological Productivity 197

Fisheries 199

Fisheries Production 199

Fisheries in Distress 200

Minerals from the Seabed 200

Energy Resources 200

ISSUE 9.2: Strip Mining the Oceans 201

Deep-Seabed Minerals 202

Management of Marine Resources 203

The Problem of Ownership 203

The Law of the Sea Treaty 204

Marine Pollution Problems 207

Protecting Marine Ecosystems 209

Example: Exploitation and Protection of Marine Mammals 212

Conclusions 214

References and Additional Reading 215

Study Questions 217

10 Water Quantity and Quality 218

Water Supply and Its Variability 218

Spatial Variation in Surface Supply 219

Temporal Variability 222

Water Supplies and Storage 222

The Demand for Water 226

Off-Stream Uses 227

ISSUE 10.1: Water Politics in the Western United States 228

In-Stream Uses 230

Water Quality 232

Major Water Pollutants and Their Sources 232

Groundwater Pollution Problems 238

Water Pollution Control 239

Wastewater Treatment 239

Nonpoint Pollution Control 240

Pollution Prevention 241

Quality, Quantity, and the Water-Supply Problem 241

Relations Between Quality and Quantity 241

ISSUE 10.2: Water Pollution Legislation in the United States 242

ISSUE 10.3: Surf Your Watershed 244

Water Quality in Developing Regions 244

Conclusions 246

References and Additional Reading 246

Study Questions 247

11 the Air Resource and Urban Air Quality 248

Introduction 248

Air Pollution Meteorology 248

Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere 248

Role of Meteorology and Topography 250

Major Pollutants 252

Particulate Matter (PM) 252

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 252

Nitrogen Oxides (no X) 253

Carbon Monoxide (CO) 253

Ozone (O 3) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 253

Lead (Pb) 253

Urban Air Pollution: The World’s Megacities 254

Monitoring Network 254

Air-Quality Patterns 254

Economic Develpment and Air Pollution 254

Urban Air Pollution in the United States 256

Air Pollution Monitoring in the United States 256

ISSUE 11.1: On a Clear Day You Can See the Grand Canyon 259

National Trends 259

How Healthy Is the Air You Breathe? 262

ISSUE 11.2: Green Days, Red Days 263

Air-Quality Control and Planning 264

ISSUE 11.3: Smog City, USA 264

Toxins in the Air 267

Indoor Air Pollution 268

Conclusions 269

References and Additional Reading 269

Study Questions 270

12 Regional and Global Atmospheric Change 271

Acid Deposition 271

Formation and Emissions Sources 271

Geographic Extent and Effects on the Environment 275

Control and Management 277

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 279

Ozone-Depleting Chemicals 280

The Ozone Hole Is Discovered 280

Reducing ODCs: The Montreal Protocol 281

ISSUE 12.1: Black Market Freon 284

Global Climate Change 284

The Greenhouse Effect 285

Greenhouse Gases 285

Impacts 287

ISSUE 12.2: The Costs of Global Warming 290

Greenhouse Politics and Emissions Stabilization 290

Conclusions 292

References and Additional Reading 293

Study Questions 294

13 Nonfuel Minerals 295

Introduction 295

Reserves and Resources 295

Availability of Major Minerals 298

Geology of Mineral Deposits 298

Variations in Reserves and Resources 299

World Reserves and Resources 299

U.S. Production and Consumption 301

Strategic Minerals and Stockpiling 302

Mining Impacts and Policy 304

Environmental Considerations 304

Social Impacts 305

ISSUE 13.1: The New Gold Rush: Prospecting Is Poison 306

Nonfuel Minerals Policy 308

Conserving Minerals: Reuse, Recovery, Recycling 308

ISSUE 13.2: Living with Boom and Bust 309

ISSUE 13.3: Computers as Solid Waste 311

Conclusions 311

References and Additional Reading 312

Study Questions 313

14 Energy Resources 314

Energy Use in the Industrial Age 314

Wood, Coal and the Industrial Revolution 315

Oil and the Internal Combustion Engine 315

Energy Use in the Late Twentieth Century 316

Energy Sources 318

Oil and Natural Gas 318

Coal 323

Other Fossil Fuels 327

Nuclear Power 327

Renewable Energy 331

ISSUE 14.1: The Legacy of Chernobyl 332

ISSUE 14.2: The Three Gorges Dam 336

Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation 340

Energy Futures 343

High-Energy Options 343

Low-Energy Options 344

Energy Policies for the Future 345

ISSUE 14.3: Electric Energy Deregulation and the California Energy Crisis 346

References and Additional Reading 348

Study Questions 349

15 the Transition to a Global Sustainable Society 350

Limits to Growth? 350

What Is Sustainable Development? 352

Environmental Versus Economic Sustainability 352

A Working Definition of Sustainability 353

How Does Sustainability Work? 353

Waste Recycling 355

Waste Reduction 356

Design for Reuse and Recycling 358

Changing Consumption Patterns 359

Science and Technology for Sustainability 360

Tipping the Balance 360

Individual Action 361

Corporate Action 361

Government Action 362

Looking Forward 366

References and Additional Reading 366

Study Questions 367

Glossary 369

Index 382