1 Barley History: Relationship of Humans and Barley Through the Ages 1

Introduction 1

Domestication and Use of Barley for Food 2

The Origin of Cultivated Barley 2

The Fertile Crescent 3

North Africa 4

Southern Europe 6

Southwestern Central, and Northern Europe 7

East Asia 10

North and South America 12

Summary 14

2 Barley: Taxonomy, Morphology, and Anatomy 18

Introduction 18

Taxonomy 18

Morphology and Anatomy 21

Roots 21

Tillers 21

Leaves 23

Spike 24

Kernels 25

Summary 29

3 Barley Biotechnology: Breeding and Transgenics 32

Introduction 32

Improving the Barley Crop 33

Traditional Barley Breeding 34

Conventional Barley Breeding 34

Mutations 37

Haploids 38

Interspecific and Intergeneric Crosses 39

Molecular Markers 40

Barley Transgenics 41

Why Transgenics? 41

Delivery Systems 42

Target Tissues 44

In Vitro Culture 44

Altered Traits 45

Transgenic Barley Risk: True or Imagined? 46

Summary 47

4 Barley: Genetics and Nutrient Composition 56

Introduction 56

Genetics and Nutrient Composition 57

Carbohydrates 59

Starch 59

Sugars 62

Nonstarch Polysaccharides 62

Proteins 68

Lipids 72

Vitamins 74

Minerals 77

Phytochemicals 79

Genetics and Physical Characteristics 81

Row Type 81

Kernel Size, Kernel Weight, and Volume Weight 82

Kernel Uniformity 83

Summary 83

5 Barley Processing: Methods and Product Composition 95

Introduction 95

Whole-Grain Processing 96

Cleaning Sizing and Conditioning 96

Blocking and Pearling 97

Grinding 102

Roller Milling 104

Malting 111

Secondary Processing 117

Extrusion 117

Steel Cutting 119

Flaking 120

Infrared Processing 120

Separation Techniques 122

Air Classification 122

Sieving 124

Special and Miscellaneous Processes 125

Summary 126

6 Evaluation of Food Product Quality 133

Introduction 133

Objective Evaluation 133

Evaluation of Yeast Bread 134

Evaluation of Flatbreads 138

Evaluation of Quick Breads, Cakes, and Cookies 138

Evaluation of Pasta 139

Sensory Evaluation 140

Summary 142

7 Barley Food Product Research and Development 144

Introduction 144

Health Claims for Barley 145

Barley as a Functional Food 146

β-Glucan: The Challenge of Barley as Food 147

Yeast Breads Made with Barley Flour 150

Flatbreads Made with Barley Flour 157

Chemically Leavened Baked Products Made with Barley Flour 160

Pasta Made with Barley Flour 162

Barley Brewers’ and Distillers’ Grains Used in Foods 166

Pearled and Other Forms of Barley 167

Malted Barley Products in Foods 169

Miscellaneous Barley Products 170

Summary 170

8 Health Benefits of Barley Foods 178

Introduction 178

Barley and Heart Disease 179

Mechanisms Responsible for Cholesterol Effects 180

Human Clinical Studies 180

Extracted β-Glucan as a Food Additive 182

Glycemic Response to Carbohydrate Consumption 184

Effect of Barley on Carbohydrate Metabolism 185

Studies Using Subjects with Diabetes 189

Starch Amylose/Amylopectin Ratio and Resistant Starch 190

Effects of Food Form and Processing on the Glycemic Index 191

Second-Meal Effect 192

Beneficial Effects of Resistant Starch in Barley on the Intestinal Tract 194

Summary 194

9 Current Status of Global Barley Production and Utilization 204

Barley Production 204

Barley Utilization 206

Outlook for Barley Food 207

10 Barley Foods: Selected Traditional Barley Recipes 210

Introduction 210

Middle East 211

Balady Bread 211

Barley–Yogurt Soup 211

Eastern Europe 212

Kasha 212

Barley–Mushroom Soup 213

Goose and Barley Soup 213

Meat and Barley Casserole 214

Black Kuba 214

Pork Bean and Barley Stew 215

East Africa: Ethiopia 215

Injera 215

Scandinavia 216

Barley Porridge 216

Danish Pancakes 216

Fruit Soup 216

Barley Sausage 217

Swedish Flatbread 217

Northeastern Europe: Finland 218

Talkkuna 218

Barley Baked on Leaves 218

Finnish Barley Pudding 219

Great Britain 219

Orkney Bere Bannocks 219

Scotch Broth 220

Barley Water 220

Asia 221

Barley Mixed-Bob 220

Tsampa 221

Summary 222

Appendix 1 Glossary: Botany and Plants 225

Appendix 2 Glossary: Food and Nutrition 227

Appendix 3 Glossary: Barley Terms 229

Appendix 4 Equivalent Weights and Measures 231

Appendix 5 Sources of Barley and Barley Products 232

Appendix 6 Barley Resource Organizations 238

Index 243