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Acid Gas Injection
Field, Data, Simulation
John J. Carroll (Edited by), Carroll (Author), Ying Wu (Edited by), Mingqiang Hao (Edited by), Weiyao Zhu (Edited by)
9781394356263, Wiley
Hardback, published 21 March 2025
464 pages
22.9 x 15.2 x 2.8 cm, 0.68 kg
This ninth and final volume in the series, Advances in Natural Gas Engineering, covers gas injection into geological formations, one of the hottest topics in the industry, with contributions from some of the most well-known and respected engineers in the world. This timely book focuses on gas injection into geological formations and other related topics, which are very important areas of natural gas engineering and build on previous volumes. It includes information for both upstream and downstream operations, including chapters detailing the most cutting-edge techniques in acid gas injection, such as acid gas disposal, modeling, and much more. Written by some of the most well-known and respected chemical and process engineers working with natural gas today, the chapters in this important volume represent the most state-of-the-art processes and operations used in the field. Not available anywhere else, this volume is a must-have for any chemical engineer, chemist, or process engineer in the industry. Advances in Natural Gas Engineering is a series of books meant to form the basis for the working library of any engineer working with natural gas today.
Preface xv 1 Acid Gas Injection from Startup to Stability— A Recap of 3 Years of Operation and Troubleshooting 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Startup: Ideal vs. Actual 4 1.3 Pump Diaphragm Failures 6 1.4 Corrosion 7 1.5 Acid Gas Sampling 9 1.6 Acid Gas Simulation 9 1.7 Acid Gas Compression Modeling 11 1.8 Summary 16 2 Acid Gas Disposal—A View from the Trenches 19 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Plant Process 21 2.3 Acid Gas Compressor 23 2.4 Injection Wells 25 2.5 Operational Learnings 26 2.5.1 Cooler Plugging 27 2.5.2 Wellhead Sealing 28 2.5.3 Wellhead Valve Stem Weeping 28 2.5.4 Elastomer Leak at Packer 29 2.5.5 Startup Issues 30 2.5.6 Amine Foaming 32 2.6 Key Design Considerations 32 2.6.1 Importance of Team 33 2.7 Summary 34 3 Pipestone Acid Gas Injection System 35 3.1 Acid Gas System Description 36 3.2 Acid Gas Pipelines 37 3.2.1 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment of Pipelines 37 3.2.2 Acid Gas Pipeline Risk Mitigation Steps 37 3.2.3 Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ) 38 3.2.4 Acid Gas Pipeline De-Inventory and Filling Procedures 38 3.3 Pipeline Leak Detection 38 3.3.1 Operational and Emergency De-Inventory of Acid Gas Pipelines 40 3.4 Acid Gas Injection Pump Design 43 3.5 Relief System Design 44 3.5.1 Thermal Relief in Acid Gas Applications 44 3.5.2 Process Piping Criteria/Considerations for Determining Thermal Relief Needs 44 3.5.3 Thermal Relief Mitigation Strategies in Valves 45 3.5.4 External Body Cavity Thermal Relief System 46 3.5.5 Additional Thermal Relief Mitigation Strategies 48 3.6 Relief Valve Selection for AGI Pump Discharge Piping Protection 48 3.7 AGI Pumps and Injection Well Control 49 3.8 Process Hazard Analysis and SIL-Rated System Considerations 51 3.9 Conclusion 53 Acknowledgment 53 4 Acid Gas Injection Case Study for the Iraqi Region of Kurdistan 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Methodology 57 4.2.1 Container Selection 57 4.2.2 Containment 59 4.2.3 Injectivity 61 4.2.4 Well and System Flow Modeling 62 4.2.5 Injector Well(s) 63 4.2.6 Surface Facilities Strategy 64 4.3 Results 65 4.4 Acknowledgments 69 4.5 Nomenclature 70 References 70 5 The Success Story of Acid Gas Injection (AGI) in WCSB: The Past, The Present, The Future 73 5.1 Introduction 74 5.2 Geology 76 5.2.1 Keg River Formation 76 5.2.2 Pardonet/Baldonnel Formation 79 5.2.3 Belloy Formation 79 5.2.4 Halfway Formation 80 5.2.5 Nisku Formation 80 5.2.6 Leduc Formation 81 5.3 Wellbore Design Consideration 81 5.3.1 Wellbore Damage Mechanisms Encountered During AGI 81 5.3.2 AGI Wellbore Damage Prevention and Control 82 5.3.3 Well Construction and Monitoring Considerations 83 5.4 Screening, Ranking, and Storage Potential Estimation 83 5.5 AGI Outlook 88 5.6 Application Evolution 88 5.6.1 Alberta 89 5.6.2 Saskatchewan 89 5.6.3 British Columbia 90 5.6.4 AGI Comparison Between Canada and USA 90 5.6.5 CCUS Comparison Between Canada and USA 91 5.7 Conclusions 91 References 93 6 Hydrates of Carbon Dioxide—A Review of Experimental Data 97 6.1 Introduction 97 6.2 Reviewed Literature 98 6.3 Experimental Techniques 107 6.4 Description of the Research Work 109 6.5 Experimental Data Comparison and Analysis 168 6.6 Conclusions 179 References 184 7 Comparison of Models to Data for Phase Equilibria and Properties of CO 2 + Contaminant Systems 189 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Previous Review Work 190 7.3 Property and Vapor–Liquid Equilibria Comparison Results 192 7.3.1 Density 192 7.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity 194 7.3.3 Viscosity 195 7.3.4 Thermal Conductivity 197 7.3.5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibria 198 7.4 Property and VLE Prediction Conclusions 199 7.5 Implication to Process Design 201 7.5.1 Liquid Chemical Absorption Process 201 7.5.2 Compression and Pumping 202 7.5.3 Heat Exchange 202 7.5.4 Pipelines 202 7.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 203 References 203 8 Numerical Investigation and Prediction of Critical Points of CO 2 Binary Mixtures Using GERG- 2008 205 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 GERG and Critical Loci 206 8.3 Key Results, Observations, and Discussion 207 8.4 Summary 210 References 211 9 Alkanolamines—What is Next? 213 9.1 Introduction 213 9.2 New Amine Components for Acid Gas Treating 215 9.3 Operating Experience 221 9.4 Conclusion 231 References 231 10 Anhydrous Triethanolamine as a Solvent for Gases 233 10.1 Introduction 233 10.2 Results and Discussion 234 10.3 Conclusions 237 Acknowledgment 237 References 237 11 CCUS via CO 2 Compression with Reciprocating Compressors 241 11.1 Introduction 241 11.2 What is a Reciprocating Compressor? 242 11.3 Material Selection 243 11.4 Gas Properties 244 11.5 Equipment Selection 247 11.6 Conclusion 248 12 Process and Design Aspects of Diaphragm Pumps 249 Nomenclature 250 12.1 Characteristics of Diaphragm Pumps 250 12.2 Co 2 and Acid Gas Injection with Diaphragm Pumps 252 12.3 Blow-Down a Critical Process Step 255 12.4 Conclusions 258 References 259 13 Well Construction and Monitoring Considerations for AGI and CCS Wells 261 13.1 Methods and Process 261 13.1.1 Pressure Measurement in Dissipation Zones 262 13.1.2 Considerations for 2D/3D/VSP Source and Sensor Design 264 13.1.3 Induced Seismicity Monitoring 265 13.1.4 Sensor Considerations and Magnitude Quantification 266 13.2 Conclusion 269 Acknowledgment 270 14 Downhole Pressure and Temperature Observations at a CO 2 Injector Under Differing Injection Conditions 271 14.1 Introduction 271 14.2 Observations 272 14.3 Summary 276 References 276 15 Case Study for the Application of CCUS to a Waste-to-Energy Italian Plant 279 15.1 Introduction 280 15.2 Co 2 Capture 281 15.2.1 Methodology for Process Design 281 15.2.2 Selection of the Pilot Plant Characteristics 283 15.3 Co 2 Utilization 286 15.4 Utilities Consumption and Economic Evaluation 287 15.4.1 Estimate of Utilities Consumptions 287 15.4.2 Preliminary Economic Analysis 289 15.5 Conclusions 289 References 290 16 Key Results of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project 293 16.1 Introduction 293 16.1.1 Current Efforts of the Japanese Government for CCS 294 16.1.2 Key Results of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project 296 16.2 Overview of the Tomakomai Project 297 16.3 Key Results of Tomakomai Project 298 16.3.1 Co 2 Capture 298 16.3.2 Co 2 Injection and Monitoring 300 16.4 Public Outreach 306 16.5 Experience of Major Earthquake 308 16.6 Research, Development, and Demonstration of CO 2 Ship Transportation 311 16.6.1 R&D to Establish Technology for Ship Transportation of Liquefied CO 2 at a Scale of 1 Million Tonnes per Year 312 16.6.2 Demonstration of CO 2 Ship Transportation by a Ship with 999 Gross Tonnage 313 16.7 Conclusion 315 Acknowledgment 315 References 315 17 Some Results of ERTF Carbon Capture Pilot Plant 317 17.1 Introduction 318 17.2 ERTF Pilot Plant Process Description and Configuration 319 17.3 Offline and Online Analysis Methods and Measurements 320 17.4 Test Campaigns 321 17.5 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #107 Capacity Target) 323 17.6 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #108 Energy Target) 327 17.7 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #109 Energy Target) 331 17.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 334 Acknowledgment 335 18 Evaluation of CO 2 Storage Potential in the Deep Mannville Coals of Alberta: Vertical Well Injection Testing 337 18.1 Introduction 338 18.2 Methodology 339 18.2.1 Field Planning 339 18.2.2 Numerical Simulation 340 18.3 Results and Discussion 342 18.3.1 Pre-Pilot Investigation 342 18.3.2 Calibration of the Numerical Model Using Field Injection Data 344 18.4 Conclusion 345 Acknowledgments 346 References 346 19 Dynamic Miscibility of H 2 S/co 2 with Reservoir Oil in a Middle Eastern Triassic Reservoir 347 19.1 Introduction 347 19.2 Description of Reservoir Simulations 348 19.2.1 Acid Gas Composition 350 19.3 Results and Discussion 350 19.3.1 Injection and Production Performance 350 19.3.2 Dynamic Miscibility 353 19.3.2.1 Results of Dynamic Miscibility for Lower Rate Case (Case 1) 356 19.3.2.2 Results of Dynamic Miscibility for Higher Rate Case (Case 2) 357 19.3.2.3 Comparison of Dynamic Miscibility in the Two Cases 359 19.4 Conclusions 360 References 361 20 Quantitative Evaluation of Dynamic Solubility of Acid Gases in Deep Brine Aquifers 363 20.1 Introduction 364 20.2 Technical Approach and Analysis 367 20.3 Description of Reservoir Simulations 368 20.4 Results and Discussion 369 20.4.1 AGI Into Ellenburger Formation 369 20.4.1.1 Dynamic Solubility in Ellenburger Formation 369 20.4.1.2 Ellenburger Formation Case E-1 370 20.4.1.3 Ellenburger Formation Case E-2 372 20.4.1.4 Comparison of the Cases and the Effect of Salinity 373 20.4.2 H 2 S/co 2 -EOR in Triassic Reservoir 375 20.4.2.1 Dynamic Solubility in Kurra Chine Formation 376 20.4.2.2 Kurra Chine Formation Case KC-1 376 20.4.2.3 Kurra Chine Formation Case KC-2 380 20.4.2.4 Comparison of the Kurra Chine Formation Cases 382 20.4.3 AGI Into Cherry Canyon Formation 384 20.4.3.1 Dynamic Solubility in Cherry Canyon Formation 384 20.4.4 AGI Into Wilcox Formation 387 20.4.4.1 Dynamic Solubility in Wilcox Formation 387 20.4.5 AGI Into Glen Rose Formation 389 20.4.5.1 Dynamic Solubility in Glen Rose Formation 389 20.5 Summary and Conclusions 392 Acknowledgment 393 References 394 21 Highlights of the Northeast BC Carbon Capture and Storage Atlas 401 21.1 Study Workflow and Deliverables 403 21.2 Project Outcomes 404 21.3 Acknowledgments 408 References 408 22 A Novel Method for Calculating Average Formation Pressure of Gas-Reservoir-Type Underground Natural Gas Storage 411 22.1 Introduction 412 22.2 Methodology 414 22.2.1 Physical Model 414 22.2.2 Mathematical Model 415 22.3 Numerical Validation 418 22.4 Field Application 420 22.4.1 Geological Background 420 22.4.2 Model Application 420 22.5 Conclusions 423 22.6 Acknowledgments 423 References 424 Appendix A—Dimensionless Variable 425 23 Simulation of Multi-Zone Coupling Flow with Phase Change in Fractured Low Permeability Condensate Gas Reservoir 427 23.1 Introduction 427 23.2 Methodology 428 23.2.1 Physical Model 428 23.2.2 Governing Equations 429 23.2.2.1 Two-Phase Zone 429 23.2.2.2 Transition Zone 429 23.2.2.3 Single-Phase Gas Zone 430 23.2.3 TPG and SS 430 23.2.4 Constraint Equations 431 23.2.5 State Equations 431 23.2.6 Initial and Boundary Conditions 432 23.3 Results and Discussion 432 23.3.1 Model Validation 432 23.3.2 Impact of Condensate 433 23.3.3 Impact of Fractures 435 23.3.4 TPG Distribution 435 23.4 Conclusions 436 Acknowledgments 436 References 436 Index 439
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Subject Areas: Industry & industrial studies [KN]
