Acknowledgements xiii

List of Abbreviations xv

Terms, Definitions and Explanations xix

Introduction 1

1 The Handbook 11

Name of the Publication 11

Introduction 12

Biography of the Publication 13

Professional Biography of the Author 15

Contexts 17

Science 17

History 19

The Structure of the Handbook and Relevant Content 20

Introduction 20

Part 1 ‘General’ 22

The Investigating Officer 22

Inspection of Localities 24

Equipment of the Investigating Officer p 243 26

The Expert and How to Make Use of Him 26

Impact at the Time 31

Impact Today 32

Contribution to Current Practice 32

Concluding Remarks 33

Key Takeaways 33

Notes 34

Bibliography 34

2 The Exchange Principle 37

Name of the Publication 38

Introduction 38

Biography of the Publication 39

Biography of the Author 40

Key Publications 42

Motivation for Writing 42

Contexts 42

Scientific/Technical 42

Historical 44

Social/Society 44

Structure of the Publication 45

Impact at the Time 48

Impact Today 48

Contribution to Current Practice 48

Concluding Remarks 49

Key Takeaways 49

Notes 49

Bibliography 49

3 The Ontogeny of Criminalistics – Questions and an Agenda 51

Name of the Publication 51

Introduction 52

Biography of the Publication 53

Professional Biography of the Author 53

Volmer and Kirk Establishing Criminalistics at UC Berkeley 53

Kirk’s War Years 1942–1945 54

Ultramicroanalysis 54

UC Berkeley Criminology/Criminalistics 54

Kirk’s First Book 55

Famous Case 56

Kirk Awards 56

Other Publications 57

Contexts 57

History 57

Science 58

Society 59

Structure and Relevant Contents 59

Introduction 59

Structure 60

Profession? 61

A Science? 62

Impact at the Time 63

Impact Now 64

Development Agenda and Need for Basic Theory 64

Create University-Level Courses in Forensic Science 64

Coordinated Research Effort/Agenda 64

Probabilistic Interpretation 64

Common Terminology 65

A Profession? 65

The Science of Individualisation 66

The Generalist 69

The Search for Fundamental Principles 70

Contribution to Current Practice 70

Concluding Remarks 71

Key Takeaways 72

Notes 72

Bibliography 73

4 DNA ‘Fingerprinting’– Putting the Science in Forensic Science 77

Name of the Publication 78

Introduction 78

The Science 78

Terminology 79

The Publication 81

Biography of the Publication 84

Professional Biography of the Author 85

Contexts 86

Scientific 86

Historical 87

Social 87

Structure of the Publication 88

Introduction 88

Isolation of minisatellites 89

Highly polymorphic minisatellites 89

A ​χ​[chi] sequence in minisatellites? 89

Probe for hypervariable regions 89

Pedigree analysis 90

A new mutant allele 90

Conclusions 90

Impact at the Time 90

Impact Today 94

Current Technological Progress 96

National DNA Databases 97

Wrongful Convictions 97

Increased Sensitivity, an Issue 97

Contribution to Current Practice 98

Concluding Remarks 99

Key Takeaways 99

Notes 100

Bibliography 101

5 Statistical Evidence and Fallacies 103

Name of the Publication 104

Introduction 104

Terms, Definitions and Explanations 105

The Prosecutor’s Fallacy 111

The Defence Attorney’s Fallacy 111

Final Comments 112

Summary 112

Motivation for Writing 112

Biography of the Publication 113

Professional Biography of the Authors 113

William C. Thompson 113

Edward L. Schumann 114

Contexts 115

Science, Statistics and Psychology 115

History 115

Structure of the Publication and Relevant Contents 115

General Structure 115

Introduction 117

Experiment 1 119

Experiment 2 121

Discussion and Conclusion 121

Impact at the Time 122

Impact Today 122

Contribution to Current Practice 123

Concluding Remarks 123

Key Takeaways 124

Notes 124

Bibliography 125

6 Interpreting Evidence – The Likelihood Ratio 127

Name of the Publication 127

Introduction 127

Biography of the Publication 130

Professional Biography of the Authors 130

Contexts 131

Structure of the Publication and Relevant Contents 131

Chapter 1 Introduction 132

Chapter 2 Interpreting Scientific Evidence 132

Chapter 3 The Alternative Hypothesis 135

Chapter 4 Explaining the Strength of the Evidence 137

Chapter 5 The Case as a Whole 139

Chapter 6 Errors in Thinking 140

Chapter 7 Classical Statistics and Database Matching 141

Chapters 8–10 141

Chapter 11 Implications for the Legal System 142

Impact at the Time 142

Impact Today 143

Contribution to Current Practice 143

Concluding Remarks 144

Key Takeaways 144

Notes 145

Bibliography 145

7 ISO/IEC 17025:1999 – Demonstrating Competence and Validity 147

Name of the Publication 147

Introduction 147

Biography of the Publication 150

Professional Biography of the Authors 151

Contexts 152

Scientific 152

Historical 153

Social/Society 159

Structure of the Publication 159

Quality Standards Framework – Continuous Improvement 160

Impact at the Time 161

A US Alternative - ASCLD/LAB 162

Impact Today 164

Contribution to Current Practice 165

Concluding Remarks 165

Notes 167

Bibliography 167

8 Observer Effects – Cognitive Bias 171

Name of Publication 171

Introduction 172

Part 1 General Observer Effects 173

Part 2 Observer Effects in Forensic Science 174

Part 3 Minimising Observer Effects in Forensic Science 176

Part 4 Observer Effects and Admissibility Under FRE 702 179

Biography of the Publication 179

Professional Biography of the Authors 182

D. Michael Risinger 182

Michael J. Saks 182

William C. Thompson 183

Robert Rosenthal (1933–2024) 183

Contexts 184

General 184

Scientific 185

Historical 187

Social/Society 188

Structure of the Publication 188

Impact at the Time 189

Impact Today 189

Contribution to Current Practice 190

Concluding Remarks 191

Key Takeaways 191

Notes 192

Bibliography 193

9 The 2009 NAS Report – Strengthening Forensic Science 197

Name of the Publication 197

Introduction 197

Summary 199

Motivation for Writing 199

Terms 200

Biography of the Publication 201

Professional Biography of the Authors 201

Contexts 202

Scientific 202

Historical 203

Social/Society 204

Structure of the Publication 205
205

Appendices 206

Summary 207

Impact at the Time 213

Early Responses from the Disciplines 214

Early US Government Responses 216

Impact Today 224

PCAST (President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology) 224

OSAC and Regulation 226

Miscarriages of Justice 227

Handwriting 227

Artificial Intelligence 228

Other Issues 228

Contribution to Current Practice 229

Recommendation 1 229

Recommendation 2: Standardised Terminology and Reporting 229

Recommendation 3: More and Better Research 230

Recommendation 4 231

Recommendation 5: More Research on Cognitive Bias 231

Recommendation 6: Development of Tools and Procedures 231

Recommendation 7: Accreditation and Certification Mandated 231

Recommendation 8: Quality Control, Assurance and Improvement 232

Recommendation 9: Code of Ethics 232

Recommendation 10: Education and Training 233

Recommendation 12: AFIS interoperability 233

Fingerprints 233

Concluding Remarks 234

Key Takeaways 235

Notes 236

Bibliography 237

10 The Sydney Declaration 241

Name of Publication 242

Introduction to the Chapter 242

Introduction to the Publication 242

Contexts 244

Historical 244

Science 245

Terms and Definitions 247

The Origins of ‘Criminology’ and ‘Criminalistics’ 247

Gross Model of Criminology 247

Criminalistics 248

Summary of the Publication 249

Introduction and Definition of Forensic Science 249

Four Principles Governing Forensic Scientific Evidence 250

Summary of Claimed Benefits 251

Next Steps 251

Locard’s Traces and Traceology 252

Motivation for Writing 252

The Lausanne School of Thought 252

Progress has been Misfocussed – One Science to Bind Them All 253

Strengths/Weaknesses/Obstacles/Threats 254

Strengths 254

Criticisms and Weaknesses 254

Obstacles 260

Threats 262

Biography of the Publication 265

Professional Biography of the Authors 265

Impact Today 266

Contribution to Current Practice 266

The Way Ahead 267

Separation from a Law Enforcement Culture 267

Police Unlikely to Cede Power 268

Organic Development of Specialisms 269

Budgets 269

The Future 270

Responsibility for the Next Steps 270

Drawing Strands Together, A Model Forensic Science Provider 270

Key Takeaways 271

Notes 273

Bibliography 274

Index 279