{"product_id":"principles-of-medical-biochemistry-paperback-9780323296168","title":"Principles of Medical Biochemistry (Paperback \/ softback) 9780323296168","description":"\u003cfont face=\"Georgia\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"6\"\u003ePrinciples of Medical Biochemistry\u003c\/font\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u003c\/em\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"4\"\u003eGerhard Meisenberg (Author), William H. Simmons (Author)\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e9780323296168, Elsevier Health Sciences\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003ePaperback \/ softback, published 1 December 2016\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e657 pages, Approx. 530 illustrations (530 in full color)\u003cbr\u003e27.6 x 21.6 x 4 cm, 1.2 kg\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp align=\"justify\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor nearly 30 years, \u003ci\u003ePrinciples of Medical Biochemistry\u003c\/i\u003e has \u003cb\u003eintegrated medical biochemistry with molecular genetics, cell biology, and genetics\u003c\/b\u003e to provide complete yet concise coverage that links biochemistry with clinical medicine. The 4th Edition of this award-winning text by Drs. Gerhard Meisenberg and William H. Simmons has been fully updated with \u003cb\u003enew clinical examples, expanded coverage of recent changes in the field, and many new case studies online\u003c\/b\u003e. A highly visual format helps readers retain complex information, and USMLE-style questions (in print and online) assist with exam preparation.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cb\u003e \u003cli\u003eJust the right amount of detail \u003c\/li\u003e\u003c\/b\u003eon biochemistry, cell biology, and genetics – in one easy-to-digest textbook.\u003cb\u003e  \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFull-color illustrations and tables throughout help students master challenging concepts more easily.\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cb\u003e  \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOnline case studies serve as a self-assessment and review tool before exams.\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cb\u003e  \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGlossary of technical terms, both in print and online.\u003c\/li\u003e \u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cb\u003e \u003cli\u003eClinical Boxes and Clinical Content\u003c\/li\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e demonstrate the integration of basic sciences and clinical applications, helping readers make connections between the two. \u003cb\u003eNew clinical examples \u003c\/b\u003ehave been added throughout the text.\u003cb\u003e  \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStudent Consult eBook version included with purchase. This\u003cb\u003e enhanced eBook experience \u003c\/b\u003eincludes access -- on a variety of devices -- to the complete text, images, and references from the book.\u003c\/li\u003e \u003c\/ul\u003e\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/strong\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePart ONE\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePRINCIPLES OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFUNCTION 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINTRODUCTION TO BIOMOLECULES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater Is the Solvent of Life \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater Contains Hydronium Ions and Hydroxyl Ions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIonizable Groups Are Characterized by Their pK Values \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Blood pH is Tightly Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcidosis and Alkalosis Are Common in Clinical Practice \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBonds Are Formed by Reactions between Functional Groups \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIsomeric Forms Are Common in Biomolecules \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperties of Biomolecules Are Determined by Their Noncovalent\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteractions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTriglycerides Consist of Fatty Acids and Glycerol \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonosaccharides Are Polyalcohols with a Keto Group or an\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAldehyde Group \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonosaccharides Form Ring Structures \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComplex Carbohydrates Are Formed by Glycosidic Bonds \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolypeptides Are Formed from Amino Acids \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNucleic Acids Are Formed from Nucleotides \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Biomolecules Are Polymers \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINTRODUCTION TO PROTEIN STRUCTURE \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmino Acids Are Zwitterions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmino Acid Side Chains Form Many Noncovalent\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteractions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeptide Bonds and Disulfide Bonds Form the Primary Structure of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins Can Fold Themselves into Many Shapes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea-Helix and ß-Pleated Sheet Are the Most Common Secondary\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStructures in Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobular Proteins Have a Hydrophobic Core \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins Lose Their Biological Activities When Their Higher-Order\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStructure Is Destroyed \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Solubility of Proteins Depends on pH and Salt\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins Absorb Ultraviolet Radiation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins Can Be Separated by Their Charge or Their Molecular\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbnormal Protein Aggregates Can Cause Disease \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurodegenerative Diseases Are Caused by Protein Aggregates \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein Misfolding Can Be Contagious \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOXYGEN TRANSPORTERS: HEMOGLOBIN AND\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMYOGLOBIN \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Heme Group Is the Oxygen-Binding Site of Hemoglobin and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyoglobin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyoglobin Is a Tightly Packed Globular Protein \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRed Blood Cells Are Specialized for Oxygen Transport \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Hemoglobins Are Tetrameric Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxygenated and Deoxygenated Hemoglobin Have Different\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuaternary Structures \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxygen Binding to Hemoglobin Is Cooperative \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate Is a Negative Allosteric Effector of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxygen Binding to Hemoglobin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFetal Hemoglobin Has a Higher Oxygen-Binding Affinity than\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoes Adult Hemoglobin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Bohr Effect Facilitates Oxygen Delivery \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Carbon Dioxide Is Transported as Bicarbonate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eENZYMATIC REACTIONS 39\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Equilibrium Constant Describes the Equilibrium of the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReaction \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Free Energy Change Is the Driving Force for Chemical\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReactions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Standard Free Energy Change Determines the Equilibrium \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnzymes Are Both Powerful and Selective \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Substrate Must Bind to Its Enzyme before the Reaction Can\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProceed \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRate Constants Are Useful for Describing Reaction Rates \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnzymes Decrease the Free Energy of Activation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Enzymatic Reactions Can Be Described by Michaelis-Menten\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKinetics \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ci\u003e \u003c\/i\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003em\u003c\/sub\u003e and \u003ci\u003eV\u003c\/i\u003e\u003csub\u003emax\u003c\/sub\u003e Can Be Determined Graphically \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstrate Half-Life Can Be Determined for First-Order but Not\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eZero-Order Reactions \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ci\u003e \u003c\/i\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003ecat\/\u003c\/sub\u003e\u003ci\u003eK\u003c\/i\u003e\u003csub\u003em\u003c\/sub\u003e Predicts the Enzyme Activity at Low Substrate\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAllosteric Enzymes Do Not Conform to Michaelis-Menten\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKinetics \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnzyme Activity Depends on Temperature and pH \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferent Types of Reversible Enzyme Inhibition Can Be\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistinguished Kinetically \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnzymes Stabilize the Transition State \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChymotrypsin Forms a Transient Covalent Bond during\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatalysis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOENZYMES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnzymes Are Classified According to Their Reaction Type \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdenosine Triphosphate Has Two Energy-Rich Bonds \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eATP Is the Phosphate Donor in Phosphorylation Reactions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eATP Hydrolysis Drives Endergonic Reactions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCells Always Try to Maintain a High Energy Charge \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDehydrogenase Reactions Require Specialized Coenzymes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoenzyme A Activates Organic Acids \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eS-Adenosyl Methionine Donates Methyl Groups \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Enzymes Require a Metal Ion \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart TWO\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGENETIC INFORMATION: DNA, RNA, AND\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePROTEIN SYNTHESIS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA, RNA, AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll Living Organisms Use DNA as Their Genetic Databank \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Contains Four Bases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Forms a Double Helix \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Can Be Denatured\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Is Supercoiled \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Replication Is Semiconservative \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Is Synthesized by DNA Polymerases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Polymerases Have Exonuclease Activities \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnwinding Proteins Present a Single-Stranded Template to the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Polymerases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the New DNA Strands Is Synthesized Discontinuously \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRNA Plays Key Roles in Gene Expression \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe S Subunit Recognizes Promoters \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Is Faithfully Copied into RNA \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome RNAs Are Chemically Modified after Transcription \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Genetic Code Defines the Structural Relationship between mRNA and Polypeptide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransfer RNA Is the Adapter Molecule in Protein Synthesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmino Acids Are Activated by an Ester Bond with the 3' Terminus\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof the tRNA \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Transfer RNAs Recognize More than One Codon \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRibosomes Are the Workbenches for Protein Synthesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Initiation Complex Brings Together Ribosome, Messenger\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRNA, and Initiator tRNA \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolypeptides Grow Stepwise from the Amino Terminus to the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarboxyl Terminus \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein Synthesis Is Energetically Expensive \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGene Expression Is Tightly Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Repressor Protein Regulates Transcription of the lac Operon\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ein \u003ci\u003eE. coli\u003c\/i\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnabolic Operons Are Repressed by the End Product of the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePathway \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlucose Regulates the Transcription of Many Catabolic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOperons \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranscriptional Regulation Depends on DNA-Binding\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHE HUMAN GENOME \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChromatin Consists of DNA and Histones \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Nucleosome Is the Structural Unit of Chromatin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCovalent Histone Modifications Regulate DNA Replication and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranscription \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Methylation Silences Genes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll Eukaryotic Chromosomes Have a Centromere, Telomeres, and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReplication Origins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTelomerase Is Required (but Not Sufficient) for Immortality \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEukaryotic DNA Replication Requires Three DNA\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymerases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Human DNA Does Not Code for Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGene Families Originate by Gene Duplication \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Genome Contains Many Tandem Repeats \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome DNA Sequences Are Copies of Functional RNAs \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Repetitive DNA Sequences Are (or Were) Mobile \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eL1 Elements Encode a Reverse Transcriptase \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlu Sequences Spread with the Help of L1 Reverse\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranscriptase \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile Elements Are Dangerous \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumans Have Approximately 20,000 Genes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranscriptional Initiation Requires General Transcription\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenes Are Surrounded by Regulatory Sites \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGene Expression Is Regulated by DNA-Binding Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong Non-coding RNAs Play Roles in Gene Expression \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emRNA Processing Starts during Transcription \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranslational Initiation Requires Many Initiation Factors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emRNA Processing and Translation Are Often Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall RNA Molecules Inhibit Gene Expression \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitochondria Have Their Own DNA \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman Genomes Are Very Diverse \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman Genomes Have Many Low-Frequency Copy Number\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariations \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePROTEIN TARGETING AND PROTEOSTASIS\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Signal Sequence Directs Polypeptides to the Endoplasmic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReticulum \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycoproteins Are Processed in the Secretory Pathway \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Endocytic Pathway Brings Proteins into the Cell \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLysosomes Are Organelles of Intracellular Digestion \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutophagy Recycles Cellular Proteins and Organelles \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorly Folded Proteins Are Either Repaired or Destroyed \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUbiquitin Markes Proteins for Destruction \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Proteostatic System Protects Cells from Abnormal Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINTRODUCTION TO GENETIC DISEASES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour Types of Genetic Disease \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMutations Occur in the Germline and in Somatic Cells \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMutations Are an Important Cause of Poor Health \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall Mutations Lead to Abnormal Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Mutations Are Caused by Replication Errors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMutations Can Be Induced by Radiation and Chemicals \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMismatch Repair Corrects Replication Errors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMissing Bases and Abnormal Bases Need to Be Replaced \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNucleotide Excision Repair Removes Bulky Lesions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRepair of DNA Double-Strand Breaks Is Difficult \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemoglobin Genes Form Two Gene Clusters \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Point Mutations in Hemoglobin Genes Are Known \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSickle Cell Disease Is Caused by a Point Mutation in the b-Chain\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGene \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA Heterozygotes Are Protected from Tropical Malaria \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea-Thalassemia Is Most Often Caused by Large Deletions\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Different Mutations Can Cause ß-Thalassemia \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFetal Hemoglobin Protects from the Effects of ß-Thalassemia and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSickle Cell Disease \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVIRUSES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViruses Can Replicate Only in a Host Cell \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBacteriophage T\u003csub\u003e4\u003c\/sub\u003e Destroys Its Host Cell \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Viruses Substitute Their Own DNA for the Host Cell\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e? Phage Can Integrate Its DNA into the Host Cell\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChromosome \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRNA Viruses Require an RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetroviruses Replicate Through a DNA Intermediate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlasmids Are Small \"Accessory Chromosomes\" or \"Symbiotic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViruses\" of Bacteria \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBacteria Can Exchange Genes by Transformation and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransduction \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJumping Genes Can Change Their Position in the Genome \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA TECHNOLOGY \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRestriction Endonucleases Cut Large DNA Molecules into Smaller\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFragments \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge Probes Are Used to Detect Copy Number Variations \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall Probes Are Used to Detect Point Mutations \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouthern Blotting Determines the Size of Restriction\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFragments \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Can Be Amplified with the Polymerase Chain Reaction \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCR Is Used for Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAllelic Heterogeneity Is the Greatest Challenge for Molecular\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenetic Diagnosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal Polymorphisms Are Used as Genetic Markers \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTandem Repeats Are Used for DNA Fingerprinting \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Microarrays Can Be Used for Genetic Screening \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Microarrays Are Used for the Study of Gene Expression \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Is Sequenced by Controlled Chain Termination \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMassively Parallel Sequencing Permits Cost-Efficient\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole-Genome Genetic Diagnosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGene Therapy Targets Somatic Cells \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViruses Are Used as Vectors for Gene Therapy \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetroviruses Can Splice a Transgene into the Cell’s Genome \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenome Editing Is Based on the Making and Healing of DNA Double Strand Breaks \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDesigner Nucleases Are Used for Genome Editing \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntisense Oligonucleotides Can Block the Expression of Rogue\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenes Can Be Altered in Animals \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTissue-Specific Gene Expression Can Be Engineered into\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimals \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman Germline Genome Editing is Technically Possible \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart THREE\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCELL AND TISSUE STRUCTURE \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembranes Consist of Lipid and Protein \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphoglycerides Are the Most Abundant Membrane Lipids \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Sphingolipids Are Glycolipids \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCholesterol Is the Most Hydrophobic Membrane Lipid \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembrane Lipids Form a Bilayer \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-Dimensional Fluid \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lipid Bilayer Is a Diffusion Barrier \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembranes Contain Integral and Peripheral Membrane\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembranes Are Asymmetrical \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembranes Are Fragile \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembrane Proteins Carry Solutes across the Lipid Bilayer \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransport against an Electrochemical Gradient Requires Metabolic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eActive Transport Consumes ATP \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSodium Cotransport Brings Molecules into the Cell \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHE CYTOSKELETON \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Erythrocyte Membrane Is Reinforced by a Spectrin\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNetwork \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKeratins Give Strength to Epithelia \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eActin Filaments Are Formed from Globular Subunits \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStriated Muscle Contains Thick and Thin Filaments \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyosin Is a Two-Headed Molecule with ATPase Activity \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuscle Contraction Requires Calcium and ATP \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Cytoskeleton of Skeletal Muscle Is Linked to the Extracellular\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMatrix \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrotubules Consist of Tubulin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEukaryotic Cilia and Flagella Contain a 9 + 2 Array of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrotubules \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCells Form Specialized Junctions with Other Cells and with the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtracellular Matrix \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollagen Is the Most Abundant Protein in the Human Body\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTropocollagen Molecule Forms a Long Triple Helix \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollagen Fibrils Are Staggered Arrays of Tropocollagen\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolecules \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollagen Is Subject to Extensive Posttranslational Processing \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollagen Metabolism Is Altered in Aging and Disease \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Genetic Defects of Collagen Structure and Biosynthesis Are\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnown \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElastic Fibers Contain Elastin and Fibrillin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Amorphous Ground Substance Contains Hyaluronic Acid \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSulfated Glycosaminoglycans Are Covalently Bound to Core\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCartilage Contains Large Proteoglycan Aggregates \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteoglycans Are Synthesized in the ER and Degraded in\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLysosomes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMucopolysaccharidoses Are Caused by Deficiency of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycosaminoglycan-Degrading Enzymes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone Consists of Calcium Phosphates in a Collagenous\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMatrix \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasement Membranes Contain Type IV Collagen, Laminin,\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibronectin Glues Cells and Collagen Fibers Together \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart FOUR\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXTRACELLULAR MESSENGERS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSteroid Hormones Are Made from Cholesterol \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgestins Are the Biosynthetic Precursors of All Other Steroid\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHormones \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThyroid Hormones Are Synthesized from Protein-Bound\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTyrosine \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e4\u003c\/sub\u003e Becomes Activiated to T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c\/sub\u003e in the Target Tissues \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism Are Common\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisorders \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsulin Is Released Together with the C-Peptide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProopiomelanocortin Forms Several Active Products \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAngiotensin Is Formed from Circulating Angiotensinogen \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImmunoassays Are Used for Determination of Hormone Levels \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatecholamines Are Synthesized from Tyrosine \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndolamines Are Synthesized from Tryptophan \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistamine Is Produced by Mast Cells and Basophils \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurotransmitters Are Released at Synapses \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetylcholine Is the Neurotransmitter of the Neuromuscular\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJunction \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere Are Many Neurotransmitters \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINTRACELLULAR MESSENGERS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReceptor-Hormone Interactions Are Noncovalent, Reversible,\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Saturable \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Neurotransmitter Receptors Are Ion Channels \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSteroid and Thyroid Hormones Bind to Transcription Factors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeven-Transmembrane Receptors Are Coupled to G Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdenylate Cyclase Is Regulated by G Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHormones Can Both Activate and Inhibit the cAMP Cascade \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCytoplasmic Calcium Is an Important Intracellular Signal \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhospholipase C Generates Two Second Messengers \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth cAMP and Calcium Regulate Gene Transcription \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuscle Contraction and Exocytosis Are Triggered by Calcium \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtrial Natriuretic Factor Acts through a Membrane-Bound Guanylate Cyclase \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitric Oxide Stimulates a Soluble Guanylate Cyclase \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecGMP Is a Second Messenger in Retinal Rod Cells \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReceptors for Insulin and Growth Factors Are Tyrosine-Specific\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein Kinases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrowth Factors and Insulin Trigger Multiple Signaling\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCascades \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCytokin Receptors Use the JAK-Stat Pathway \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Receptors Become Desensitized after Overstimulation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePLASMA PROTEINS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Blood pH Is Tightly Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcidosis and Alkalosis Are Common in Clinical Practice \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlasma Proteins Are Both Synthesized and Destroyed in the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiver \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlbumin Prevents Edema \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlbumin Binds Many Small Molecules \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome Plasma Proteins Are Specialized Carriers of Small\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolecules \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeficiency of a1-Antiprotease Causes Lung Emphysema \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels of Plasma Proteins Are Affected by Many Diseases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood Components Are Used for Transfusions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood Clotting Must Be Tightly Controlled \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlatelets Adhere to Exposed Subendothelial Tissue \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsoluble Fibrin Is Formed from Soluble Fibrinogen \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrombin Is Derived from Prothrombin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor X Can Be Activated by the Extrinsic and Intrinsic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePathways \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative Controls Are Necessary to Prevent Thrombosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlasmin Degrades the Fibrin Clot \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeparin and the Vitamin K Antagonists Are Used as\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnticoagulants \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClotting Factor Deficiencies Cause Abnormal Bleeding \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTissue Damage Causes Release of Cellular Enzymes into\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSerum Enzymes Are Used for the Diagnosis of Many Diseases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 18\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefense Mechanisms \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipophilic Xenobiotics Are Metabolized to Water-soluble Products \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCytochrome P-450 Is Involved in Phase I Metabolism\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase II Metabolism Makes Xenobiotics Water-Soluble for Excretion\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase III Metabolism Excretes Xenobiotic Metabolites \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrug Metabolizing Enzymes Are Inducible \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Innate Immune System Uses Pattern Recognitino Receptors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfection Triggers Inflammation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLymphocytes Possess Antigen Receptors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB Lymphocytes Produce Immunoglobulins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntiboidies Consist of Two Light Chains and Two Heavy Chains \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferent Immunoglobulin Classes Have Different Properties \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaptive Immune Responses Are Based on Clonal Selection \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImmunoglobulin genes Are Rearranged During B-Cell Development \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe T-Cell Receptor Recruits Cytosolic Tyrosine Protein Kinases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediatros of Inflammation Are Produced form Arachidonic Acid\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProstaglandins Are Synthesized in All Tissues \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProstanoids Participate in Many Physiological Processes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeukotrienes Are Produced by the Lipoxygenase Pathway \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-Inflammatory Drugs Inhibit the Synthesis of Eicosanoids\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCELLULAR GROWTH CONTROL AND CANCER \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Cell Cycle Is Controlled at Two Checkpoints \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCells Can Be Grown in Culture \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyclins Play Key Roles in Cell Cycle Control \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetinoblastoma Protein Guards the G\u003csub\u003e1\u003c\/sub\u003e Checkpoint \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCell Proliferation Is Triggered by Mitogens \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitogens Regulate Gene Expression \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCells Can Commit Suicide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancers Are Monoclonal in Origin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancer Is Caused by Activation of Growth-Promoting Genes\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Inactivation of Growth-Inhibiting Genes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome Retroviruses Contain an Oncogene \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetroviruses Can Cause Cancer by Inserting Themselves Next\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eto a Cellular Proto-Oncogene \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Oncogenes Code for Components of Mitogenic Signaling\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCascades \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancer Susceptibility Syndromes Are Caused by Inherited\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMutations in Tumor Suppressor Genes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Tumor Suppressor Genes Are Known \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponents of the Cell Cycle Machinery Are Abnormal in Most\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancers \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Damage Causes Either Growth Arrest or Apoptosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Spontaneous Cancers Are Defective in p53 Action \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe P13K\/Protein Kinase B Pathway Is Activated in Many\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancers \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Products of Some Viral Oncogenes Neutralize the Products\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof Cellular Tumor Suppressor Genes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTumors Become More Malignant through Darwinian Selection \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntestinal Polyps Are Benign Lesions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntestinal Polyps Can Evolve into Colon Cancer \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart FIVE\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMETABOLISM \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDIGESTIVE ENZYMES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaliva Contains a-Amylase and Lysozyme \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein and Fat Digestion Start in the Stomach \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Pancreas Is a Factory for Digestive Enzymes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat Digestion Requires Bile Salts \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome Digestive Enzymes Are Anchored to the Surface of the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrovilli \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorly Digestible Nutrients Cause Flatulence \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Digestive Enzymes Are Released as Inactive\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrecursors \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINTRODUCTION TO METABOLIC PATHWAYS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlternative Substrates Can Be Oxidized in the Body Metabolic Processes Are Compartmentalized \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree Energy Changes in Metabolic Pathways Are \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditive \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Metabolic Pathways Are Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeedback Inhibition and Feedforward Stimulation Are the Most\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportant Regulatory Principles \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolism Is Regulated to Ensure Homeostasis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInherited Enzyme Deficiencies Cause Metabolic Diseases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin Deficiencies, Toxins, and Endocrine Disorders Can Disrupt\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolic Pathways \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 22\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGLYCOLYSIS, TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE, AND\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlucose Uptake into the Cells Is Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlucose Degradation Begins in the Cytoplasm and Ends in the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitochondria \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycolysis Begins with ATP-Dependent Phosphorylations \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Glycolytic Intermediates Have Three Carbons \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphofructokinase Is the Most Important Regulated Enzyme\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof Glycolysis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLactate Is Produced under Anaerobic Conditions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyruvate Is Decarboxylated to Acetyl-CoA in the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitochondria \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TCA Cycle Produces Two Molecules of Carbon Dioxide for\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach Acetyl Residue \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduced Coenzymes Are the Most Important Products of the TCA\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCycle \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxidative Pathways Are Regulated by Energy Charge and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[NADH]\/[NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c\/sup\u003e] Ratio \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCA Cycle Provides an Important Pool of Metabolic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermediates \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntiporters Transport Metabolites across the Inner Mitochondrial\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembrane \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Respiratory Chain Channels Electrons fromNADH\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand FADH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c\/sub\u003e to Molecular Oxygen \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Reduction Potential Is the Tendency to Donate\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrons \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Respiratory Chain Contains Flavoproteins, Iron-Sulfur\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteins, Cytochromes, Ubiquinone, and Protein-Bound\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCopper \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Respiratory Chain Contains Large Multiprotein\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComplexes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Respiratory Chain Creates a Proton Gradient \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Efficiency of Glucose Oxidation Is Close to 40% \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxidative Phosphorylation Is Limited by the Supply of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eADP \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrown Adipose Tissue Contains an Uncoupling Protein \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMutations in Mitochondrial DNA Can Cause Disease \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 23\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxygen Deficiency and Oxygen Toxicity \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIschemia Leads to Infarction \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxidative Phosphorylation Is Inhibited by Many Poisons \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypoxia Inducible Factor Adjusts Cell Metabolism to Hypoxia \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReactive Oxygen Derivatives Are Formed during Oxidative Metabolism \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Respiratory Chain Is a Major Source of Superoxide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCells Have Specialized Enzymes to Destroy Reactive Oxygen Species \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree Radical Formation Is Affected by Energy Supply and Energy Consumption \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome Vitamins and Phytochemicals Can Scavange Free Radicals \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe NRF2 Transcription Factor Coordinates Defenses against Reactive Oxygen Species \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhagocytic Cells Use Reactive Oxygen Species for Intracellular Killing \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 24\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn Adequate Blood Glucose Level Must Be Maintained at All\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTimes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGluconeogenesis Bypasses the Three Irreversible Reactions of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycolysis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFatty Acids Cannot Be Converted into Glucose \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycolysis and Gluconeogenesis Are Regulated by Hormones \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycolysis and Gluconeogenesis Are Fine Tuned by Allosteric\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffectors and Hormone-Induced Enzyme\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphorylations \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFructose-2,6-biphosphate Switches the Liver from Gluconeogenesis to Glycolysis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlucokinase Is Regulated by Two Regulatory Proteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate Is Stored as Glycogen \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycogen Is 0Synthesized from Glucose \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycogen Is Degraded by Phosphorolytic Cleavage \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycogen Metabolism Is Regulated by Hormones and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolites \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycogen Accumulates in Several Enzyme Deficiencies \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFructose Is Channeled into Glycolysis\/Gluconeogenesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcess Fructose Is Problematic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcess Galactose Is Channeled into the Pathways of Glucose\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolism \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Pentose Phosphate Pathway Supplies NADPH and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRibose-5-Phosphate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFructose Is the Principal Sugar in Seminal Fluid \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmino Sugars and Sugar Acids Are Made from Glucose \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 25\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHE METABOLISM OF FATTY ACIDS AND\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTRIGLYCERIDES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFatty Acids Differ in Their Chain Length and Number of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDouble Bonds \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChylomicrons Transport Triglycerides from the Intestine to Other\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTissues \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdipose Tissue Is Specialized for the Storage of Triglycerides \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat Metabolism in Adipose Tissue Is under Hormonal\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFatty Acids Are Transported into the Mitochondrion \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eß-Oxidation Produces Acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c\/sub\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecial Fatty Acids Require Special Reactions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Liver Converts Excess Fatty Acids to Ketone Bodies \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFatty Acids Are Synthesized from Acetyl-CoA \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetyl-CoA Is Shuttled into the Cytoplasm as Citrate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFatty Acid Synthesis Is Regulated by Hormones and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolites \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMP-Activated Protein Kinase Adapts Metabolic Pathways to Cellular Energy Status \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Fatty Acids Can Be Synthesized from Palmitate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFatty Acids Regulate Gene Expression \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyunsaturated Fatty Acids Can Be Oxidized\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonenzymatically\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHE METABOLISM OF MEMBRANE LIPIDS 000Phosphatidic Acid Is an Intermediate in Phosphoglyceride\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynthesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphoglycerides Are Remodeled Continuously \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSphingolipids Are Synthesized from Ceramide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeficiencies of Sphingolipid-Degrading Enzymes Cause Lipid\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStorage Diseases \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCholesterol Is the Least Soluble Membrane Lipid \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCholesterol Is Derived from Both Endogenous Synthesis and the\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiet \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCholesterol Biosynthesis Is Regulated at the Level of HMG-CoA\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReductase \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBile Acids Are Synthesized from Cholesterol \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBile Acids Are Subject to Extensive Enterohepatic Circulation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Gallstones Consist of Cholesterol \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 27\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLIPID TRANSPORT \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost Plasma Lipids Are Components of Lipoproteins \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipoproteins Have Characteristic Lipid and Protein\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompositions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDietary Lipids Are Transported by Chylomicrons \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVLDL Is a Precursor of LDL \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLDL Is Removed by Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCholesterol Regulates Its Own Metabolism \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHDL Is Needed for Reverse Cholesterol Transport \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipoproteins Can Initiate Atherosclerosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipoproteins Respond to Diet and Lifestyle \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHyperlipoproteinemias Are Grouped into Five Phenotypes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHyperlipidemias Are Treated with Diet and Drugs\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMINO ACID METABOLISM \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmino Acids Can Be Used for Gluconeogenesis and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKetogenesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Nitrogen Balance Indicates the Net Rate of Protein\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynthesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Amino Group of Amino Acids Is Released as Ammonia \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmmonia Is Detoxified to Urea \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea Is Synthesized in the Urea Cycle \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHyperammonemia Can Be Treated with Diet and Drugs \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome Amino Acids Are Closely Related to Common Metabolic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermediates \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycine, Serine, and Threonine Are Glucogenic \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProline, Arginine, Ornithine, and Histidine Are Degraded to\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlutamate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethionine and Cysteine Are Metabolically Related \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValine, Leucine, and Isoleucine Are Degraded by Transamination\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Oxidative Decarboxylation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenylalanine and Tyrosine Are Both Glucogenic and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKetogenic\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMelanin Is Shesized from Tyrosine \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLysine and Tryptophan Have Lengthy Catabolic Pathways \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Liver Is the Most Important Organ of Amino Acid\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolism \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlutamine Participates in Renal Acid-Base Regulation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMETABOLISM OF IRON AND HEME\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron Is Conserved Very Efficiently in the Body \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron Uptake by Cells Is Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDietary Iron Is Absorbed in the Duodenum \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDietary Iron Absorption Is Regulated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron Deficiency Is the Most Common Micronutrient Deficiency Worldwide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone Marrow and Liver Are the Most Important Sites of Heme\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynthesis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeme Is Synthesized from Succinyl-Coenzyme A and Glycine \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorphyrias Are Caused by Deficiencies of Heme-Synthesizing\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnzymes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeme Is Degraded to Bilirubin \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBilirubin Is Conjugated and Excreted by the Liver \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevations of Serum Bilirubin Cause Jaundice \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Diseases Can Cause Jaundice \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHE METABOLISM OF PURINES AND\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePYRIMIDINES \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurine Synthesis Starts with Ribose-5-Phosphate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurines Are Degraded to Uric Acid \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree Purine Bases Can Be Salvaged \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrimidines Are Synthesized from Carbamoyl Phosphate and\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAspartate \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA Synthesis Requires Deoxyribonucleotides \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Antineoplastic Drugs Inhibit Nucleotide Metabolism \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUric Acid Has Limited Water Solubility \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHyperuricemia Causes Gout \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbnormalities of Purine-Metabolizing Enzymes Can Cause\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGout \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGout Can Be Treated with Drugs \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 31\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMICRONUTRIENTS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiboflavin Is a Precursor of Flavin Mononucleotide\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNiacin Is a Precursor of NAD and NADP \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThiamin Deficiency Causes Weakness and Amnesia \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin B\u003csub\u003e6\u003c\/sub\u003e Plays a Key Role in Amino Acid Metabolism \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePantothenic Acid Is a Building Block of Coenzyme A \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiotin Is a Coenzyme in Carboxylation Reactions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFolic Acid Deficiency Causes Megaloblastic Anemia \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin B\u003csub\u003e12\u003c\/sub\u003e Requires Intrinsic Factor for Its Absorption \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin C Is a Water-Soluble Antioxidant \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetinol, Retinal, and Retinoic Acid Are the Active Forms of\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin A \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin D Is a Prohormone \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin E Prevents Lipid Oxidation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Vitamins and Phytochemicals Are Antioxidants \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin K Is Required for Blood Clotting \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinc Is a Constituent of Many Enzymes\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCopper Participates in Reactions of Molecular Oxygen \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome Trace Elements Serve Very Specific Functions \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChapter 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINTEGRATION OF METABOLISM \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsulin Is Released in Response to Elevated Glucose \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsulin Stimulates the Utilization of Nutrients \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein Synthesis Is Coordinated by the mTOR Complex \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlucagon Maintains the Blood Glucose Level \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatecholamines Mediate the Flight-or-Fight Response \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlucocorticoids Are Released in Chronic Stress \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy Is Expended Continuously \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStored Fat and Glycogen Are Degraded between Meals \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdipose Tissue Is the Most Important Energy Depot \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Liver Converts Dietary Carbohydrates to Glycogen\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Fat after a Meal \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Liver Maintains the Blood Glucose Level during Fasting \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKetone Bodies Provide Lipid-Based Energy during\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFasting \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eObesity Is Common \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ein All Affluent Countries \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppetite Control Is the Most Important Determinant of Obesity \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eObesity Is Related to Insulin Resistance \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiabetes Is Caused by Insulin Deficiency or Insulin\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResistance \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Diabetes, Metabolism Is Regulated as in\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStarvation \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiabetes Is Diagnosed with Laboratory Tests \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiabetes Leads to Late Complications \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany Drugs Are Available for Diabetes Treatment \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContracting Muscle Has Three Energy Sources \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatecholamines Coordinate Metabolism during Exercise \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical Exercise Leads to Adaptive Changes \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol Is Metabolized to Acetyl-CoA in the Liver \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiver Metabolism Is Deranged by Alcohol \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlcoholism Leads to Fatty Liver and Liver Cirrhosis \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost \"Diseases of Civilization\" Are Caused by Aberrant\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivestyles \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAging Is the Greatest Challenge for Medical Research\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-Aging Treatments Are Being Investigated \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eANSWERS TO QUESTIONS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGLOSSARY \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCREDITS \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXTRA ONLINE-ONLY CASE STUDIES \u003cb\u003e{more new Cases to be added, to come}\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Mafia Boss\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eViral Gastroenteritis\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeath in Installments\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Mysterious Death\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo Treat or Not to Treat?\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellow Eyes\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn Abdominal Emergency\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShortness of Breath\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eItching\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbdominal Pain\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRheumatism\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Bank Manager in Trouble\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKidney Problems\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender Blender\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMan Overboard!\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpongy Bones\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlisters\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Sunburned Child\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eToo Much Ammonia\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eANSWERS TO CASE STUDIES\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003eSubject Areas: Pre-clinical medicine: basic sciences [\u003ca title=\"See our other books on Pre-clinical medicine: basic sciences\" href=\"https:\/\/freshlyprintedbooks.co.uk\/search?q=%22Pre-clinical%20medicine:%20basic%20sciences%20%5BMF%5D%22\"\u003eMF\u003c\/a\u003e]\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003c\/font\u003e","brand":"Elsevier","offers":[{"title":"Default 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