{"product_id":"adjustment-computations-spatial-data-analysis-hardback-9781394341313","title":"Adjustment Computations; Spatial Data Analysis (Hardback) 9781394341313","description":"\u003cfont face=\"Georgia\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"6\"\u003eAdjustment Computations\u003c\/font\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\r\n\u003cfont size=\"5\"\u003eSpatial Data Analysis\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"4\"\u003eCharles D. Ghilani (Author), Dimitrios Bolkas (Author), Michael J. Olsen (Author)\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e9781394341313, Wiley\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003eHardback, published 25 June 2026\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e800 pages\u003cbr\u003e23.1 x 15.8 x 3.6 cm, 1.021 kg\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp align=\"justify\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProvides Comprehensive, Up-to-Date Guidance on Spatial Data Accuracy\u003c\/b\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs modern surveying, mapping, and geospatial technologies continue to evolve, the need for precise data adjustment and error analysis has never been greater. \u003ci\u003eAdjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis, Seventh Edition\u003c\/i\u003e, remains the definitive guide to understanding, applying, and mastering least squares and related techniques that ensure the accuracy of spatial datasets. \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis updated edition integrates advances in spatial technologies, with new chapters covering laser scanning, point cloud processing, and parametric model estimation. Updated discussions of ASPRS standards, NSRS updates, and current computational tools reflect the latest professional practices and technologies. The text maintains its clear, pedagogical structure with concise chapters, worked examples, and practical software applications. Providing the analytical tools to deliver high-quality spatial data for diverse applications, this book: \u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIncludes coverage of laser scanning and its errors, point cloud shape fitting, GNSS networks, coordinate transformations, and parametric modeling\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIncorporates updated standards from ASPRS and the National Spatial Reference System (NSRS)\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProvides access to companion software, MathCAD worksheets, and video lessons for hands-on problem solving\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBalances rigorous mathematics with accessible explanations and real-world surveying applications\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFeatures real-world case studies of infrastructure documentation, construction, and environmental monitoring\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdeal for undergraduate and graduate courses in surveying, geomatics, and geospatial analysis, \u003ci\u003eAdjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis, Seventh Edition\u003c\/i\u003e, supports curricula in civil engineering, geosciences, and GIS programs. It is also a useful reference for professional surveyors and geospatial analysts seeking to enhance data accuracy and reliability.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/strong\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreface xvii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments xxiii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout the Companion Website xxv\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Introduction 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 Introduction 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Direct and Indirect Measurements 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 Measurement Error Sources 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4 Definitions 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 Precision versus Accuracy 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6 Redundant Observations in Surveying and Their Adjustment 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7 Advantages of Least Squares Adjustment 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8 Overview of the Book 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 Observations and Their Analysis 13\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Introduction 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Sample versus Population 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Range and Median 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Graphical Representation of Data 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Numerical Methods of Describing Data 18\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 Measures of Central Tendency 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7 Additional Definitions 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8 Alternative Formulas for Determining Variance 22\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9 Numerical Examples 25\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10 Root Mean Square Error and Mapping Standards 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.11 Derivation of the Sample Variance (Bessel’s Correction) 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12 Software 33\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 34\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical Exercises 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 Random Error Theory 39\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Introduction 39\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Theory of Probability 39\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 Properties of the Normal Distribution Curve 42\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4 Standard Normal Distribution Function 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5 Probability of the Standard Error 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6 Uses for Percent Errors 49\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7 Practical Examples 50\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 Confidence Intervals 57\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Introduction 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 Distributions Used in Sampling Theory 59\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Confidence Interval for the Mean: t Statistic 64\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Testing the Validity of the Confidence Interval 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Selecting a Sample Size 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 Confidence Interval for a Population Variance 69\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7 Confidence Interval for the Ratio of Two Population Variances 70\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8 Software 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 75\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 Statistical Testing 81\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Hypothesis Testing 81\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Systematic Development of a Test 84\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 Test of Hypothesis for the Population Mean 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Test of Hypothesis for the Population Variance 88\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5 Test of Hypothesis for the Ratio of Two Population Variances 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.6 Using Software 94\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 Propagation of Random Errors in Indirectly Measured Quantities 99\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Basic Error Propagation Equation 99\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Frequently Encountered Specific Functions 104\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Numerical Examples 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Software 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 Conclusions 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical Exercises 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Error Propagation in Angle and Distance Observations 115\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 Introduction 115\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 Error Sources in Horizontal Angles 116\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Reading Errors 116\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Pointing Errors 118\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5 Estimated Pointing and Reading Errors with Total Stations 119\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6 Target Centering Errors 120\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7 Instrument Centering Errors 122\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8 Effects of Leveling Errors in Angle Observations 126\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9 Numerical Example of Combined Error Propagation in a Single Horizontal Angle 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.10 Using Estimated Errors to Check Angular Misclosure in a Traverse 130\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.11 Errors in Astronomical Observations for Azimuth 132\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.12 Errors in Electronic Distance Observations 137\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.13 Centering Errors When Using Range Poles 138\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.14 Software 139\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 143\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Error Propagation in Traverse Surveys 145\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Introduction 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Derivation of Estimated Error in Latitude and Departure 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Derivation of Estimated Standard Errors in Course Azimuths 148\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 Computing and Analyzing Polygon Traverse Misclosure Errors 148\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Computing and Analyzing Link Traverse Misclosure Errors 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6 Software 158\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7 Conclusions 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 Error Propagation in Elevation Determination 165\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 Introduction 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Systematic Errors in Differential Leveling 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 Random Errors in Differential Leveling 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Error Propagation in Trigonometric Leveling 173\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 177\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 179\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Weights of Observations 181\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Introduction 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Weighted Mean 183\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Relationship Between Weights and Standard Errors 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Statistics of Weighted Observations 186\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Weights in Angle Observations 187\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Weights in Differential Leveling 188\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Practical Examples 189\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 192\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 Principles of Least Squares 195\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Introduction 195\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Fundamental Principle of Least Squares 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 The Fundamental Principle of Weighted Least Squares 198\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 The Stochastic Model 199\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5 Functional Model 199\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6 Observation Equations 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7 Systematic Formulation of the Normal Equations 203\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8 Tabular Formation of the Normal Equations 205\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9 Using Matrices to Form the Normal Equations 206\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.10 Least-Squares Solution of Nonlinear Systems 209\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.11 Least-Squares Fit of Points to a Line or Curve 213\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.12 Calibration of an EDM Instrument 216\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.13 Least-Squares Adjustment Using Conditional Equations 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.14 The Previous Example Using Observation Equations 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.15 Software 221\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 221\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Adjustment of Level Nets 227\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 Introduction 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Observation Equation 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Unweighted Example 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Weighted Example 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 Reference Standard Deviation 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6 Another Weighted Adjustment 234\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.7 Software 237\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 244\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Precisions of Indirectly Determined Quantities 245\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 Introduction 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Development of the Covariance Matrix 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 Numerical Examples 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 Standard Deviations of Computed Quantities 251\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 254\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 256\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys: Trilateration 257\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1 Introduction 257\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 Distance Observation Equation 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 Trilateration Adjustment Example 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4 Formulation of a Generalized Coefficient Matrix for a More Complex Network 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5 Computer Solution of a Trilaterated Quadrilateral 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6 Iteration Termination 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 Software 274\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys: Triangulation 283\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 Introduction 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 Azimuth Observation Equation 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3 Angle Observation Equation 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4 Adjustment of Intersections 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5 Adjustment of Resections 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6 Adjustment of Triangulated Quadrilaterals 298\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 310\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys: Traverses and Horizontal Networks 313\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.1 Introduction to Traverse Adjustments 313\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.2 Observation Equations 314\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3 Redundant Equations 314\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.4 Numerical Example 315\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5 Minimum Amount of Control 322\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6 Adjustment of Networks 322\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7 χ 2 Test: Goodness-of-Fit 330\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 331\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17 Adjustment of GNSS Networks 343\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1 Introduction 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.2 GNSS Observations 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3 GNSS Errors and the Need for Adjustment 347\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.4 Reference Coordinate Systems for GNSS Observations 347\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5 Converting Between the Terrestrial and Geodetic Coordinate Systems 350\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.6 Application of Least Squares in Processing GNSS Data 353\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.7 Network Preadjustment Data Analysis 356\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.8 Least Squares Adjustment of GNSS Networks 363\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 369\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18 Coordinate Transformations 383\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.1 Introduction 383\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2 The Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3 Equation Development 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4 Application of Least Squares 386\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5 Two-Dimensional Affine Coordinate Transformation 389\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6 The Two-Dimensional Projective Coordinate Transformation 392\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.7 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 394\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.8 Statistically Valid Parameters 400\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 404\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 410\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19 Error Ellipse 411\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.1 Introduction 411\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.2 Computation of Ellipse Orientation and Semiaxes 413\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3 Example Problem of Standard Error Ellipse Calculations 418\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4 Another Example Problem 420\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.5 The Error Ellipse Confidence Level 421\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6 Error Ellipse Advantages 423\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.7 Other Measures of Station Uncertainty 426\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8 Check Points 433\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20 Constraint Equations 437\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.1 Introduction 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2 Adjustment of Control Station Coordinates 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3 Holding Control Station Coordinates and Directions of Lines Fixed 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4 Helmert’s Method 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5 Redundancies in a Constrained Adjustment 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6 Enforcing Constraints through Weighting 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical Problems 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e21 Blunder Detection in Horizontal Networks 457\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.1 Introduction 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2 A Priori Methods for Detecting Blunders in Observations 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3 A Posteriori Blunder Detection 460\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4 Development of the Covariance Matrix for the Residuals 462\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.5 Detection of Outliers in Observations: Data Snooping 464\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.6 Detection of Outliers in Observations: The Tau Criterion 466\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7 Techniques Used in Adjusting Control 468\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8 A Data Set with Blunders 469\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.9 Some Further Considerations 477\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.10 Survey Design 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.11 Software 481\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 482\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical Problems 487\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e22 The General Least-Squares Method and Its Application to Curve Fitting and Coordinate Transformations 489\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.1 Introduction to General Least-Squares 489\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2 General Least-Squares Equations for Fitting a Straight Line 489\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3 General Least-Squares Solution 491\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.4 Two-Dimensional Coordinate Transformation by General Least-Squares 495\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation by General Least-Squares 501\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 503\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 507\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e23 Three-Dimensional Geodetic Network Adjustment 509\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.1 Introduction 509\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2 Linearization of Equations 511\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3 Minimum Number of Constraints 517\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4 Example Adjustment 517\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.5 Building an Adjustment 524\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.6 Comments on Systematic Errors 526\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.7 Software 529\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 531\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 534\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24 Combining GNSS and Terrestrial Observations 535\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.1 Introduction 535\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2 The Helmert Transformation 537\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.3 Rotations Between Coordinate Systems 541\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4 Combining GNSS Baseline Vectors with Traditional Observations 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.5 Another Approach to Transforming Coordinates Between Reference Frames 546\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.6 Other Considerations when Localizing a Survey 549\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.7 Using Total Station Pseudo-Observations 551\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.8 Building a Stochastic Model 556\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.9 Least-Squares Adjustment using Pseudo-Observations 560\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.10 Software 562\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 563\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 566\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e25 Analyses of Adjustments 567\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.1 Introduction 567\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.2 Basic Concepts, Residuals, and the Normal Distribution 567\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3 Goodness-of-Fit Test 571\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.4 Comparison of GNSS Residual Plots 574\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.5 Use of Statistical Blunder Detection 576\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 577\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26 Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Uncertainty Estimation 579\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.1 Introduction 579\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2 Laser Scanner Coordinates 580\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.3 Beam Divergence and Incidence Angle Effects 583\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.4 Range and Angular Uncertainty 586\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.5 Error Propagation of Laser Scanner Measurements 589\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.6 Registration and Its Uncertainty 593\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.7 Point Cloud Uncertainty 596\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.8 Survey Planning 599\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.9 Conclusions 607\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.10 Software 608\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 608\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27 Plane, Three-Dimensional Objects, and Elevation Model Estimation with Point Clouds 615\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.1 Introduction 615\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2 Plane Fitting with Point Clouds 616\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3 Sphere and Cylinder Estimation with Point Clouds 628\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4 RANSAC Estimation 645\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5 Polynomial and Elevation Estimation with Point Clouds 645\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.6 Software 649\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 649\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e28 Computer Optimization 657\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.1 Introduction 657\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2 Storage Optimization 658\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3 Direct Formation of the Normal Equations 660\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4 Cholesky Decomposition 662\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.5 Forward and Backward Solutions 662\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.6 Using the Cholesky Factor to Find the Inverse of the Normal Matrix 664\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.7 Spareness and Optimization of the Normal Matrix 664\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 670\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problem 671\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix A Introduction to Matrices 673\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.1 Introduction 673\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.2 Definition of a Matrix 673\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.3 Size or Dimensions of a Matrix 674\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.4 Types of Matrices 675\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.5 Matrix Equality 676\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.6 Addition or Subtraction of Matrices 677\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.7 Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix 677\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.8 Matrix Multiplication 677\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.9 Computer Algorithms for Matrix Operations 681\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.10 Use of the Matrix Software 683\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 685\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 687\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix B Solution of Equations by Matrix Methods 689\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.1 Introduction 689\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.2 Inverse Matrix 689\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.3 The Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix 690\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.4 Inverses by Adjoints 692\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.5 Inverses by Elementary Row Transformations 693\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.6 Example Problem 696\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 698\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 700\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 702\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix C Nonlinear Equations and Taylor’s Theorem 703\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.1 Introduction 703\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.2 Taylor Series Linearization of Nonlinear Equations 703\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.3 Numerical Example 705\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.4 Using Matrices to Solve Nonlinear Equations 706\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.5 Simple Matrix Example 707\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.6 Practical Example 708\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eC.7 Concluding Remarks 710\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblems 711\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProgramming Problems 712\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix D The Normal Error Distribution Curve and Other Statistical Tables 713\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD.1 Development for Normal Distribution Curve Equation 713\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD.2 Other Statistical Tables 721\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix E Confidence Intervals for the Mean 733\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix F Companion Website 739\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eF.1 Introduction 739\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eF.2 File Formats and Memory Matters 740\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eF.3 Software 740\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eF.4 Using the Software as an Instructional Aid 743\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix G Answers to Selected Problems 745\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBibliography 751\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex 757\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cfont size=\"3\"\u003eSubject Areas: Civil engineering, surveying \u0026amp; building [\u003ca title=\"See our other books on Civil engineering, surveying \u0026amp; building\" href=\"https:\/\/freshlyprintedbooks.co.uk\/search?q=%22Civil%20engineering,%20surveying%20\u0026amp;%20building%20%5BTN%5D%22\"\u003eTN\u003c\/a\u003e]\u003c\/font\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003c\/font\u003e","brand":"Wiley","offers":[{"title":"Brand New","offer_id":52433818878232,"sku":"9781394341313","price":119.29,"currency_code":"GBP","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0730\/2037\/5320\/files\/9781394341313.jpg?v=1784853949","url":"https:\/\/freshlyprintedbooks.co.uk\/products\/adjustment-computations-spatial-data-analysis-hardback-9781394341313","provider":"Freshly Printed Books","version":"1.0","type":"link"}